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SUITABLE EQUIPMENT IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN SUCCESS IN ARTIFICAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 

1 — Turning and cooling' egprs — Scene in incubator room, Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station. 2 — Newly 
hatched chicks, ready for the brooder. 3 — Growing- stock on range — Scene at Purdue University. 4 — Colony hover 
brooder house on United States Government Poultry Experimental Farm. 5 — Outdoor lamp-heated brooders — Scene on 
Government Poultry Farm. 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING 
AND BROODING 



A Complete Guide to the Successful Hatching and 

Rearing of Chicks by Modern 

Artificial Methods 



HOMER W. JACKSON, Editor 



FULLY ILLUSTRATED 

FOURTH EDITION 



PRICE, $1.00 



Copyright, 1019, by RELIABLE POULTRY JOURNAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
Copyright, 1922, by RELIABLE POULTRY JOURNAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 



PUBLISHED BY 

RELIABLE POULTRY JOURNAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 

DAYTON, OHIO, U. S. A. 



.5^ 



<\* 



\W* 



CONTENTS 



INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER I 
Selection of Breeding Stock 9 

CHAPTER II 
Management of Breeding Stock 15 

CHAPTER III 
The Hen's Egg and How It Is Formed , 22 

CHAPTER IV 
The Chick Embryo and Its Development 28 

CHAPTER V 
Operation of Incubators 34 

CHAPTER VI 
Mistakes in Artificial Incubating 48 

CHAPTER VII 
Day-Old Chicks and Custom Hatching 54 

CHAPTER VII 1 
Practical Incubator Houses 59 

CHAPTER IX 
The Selection of Brooding Equipment 65 

CHAPTER X 
c'arc and Management of Brooder Clucks 76 

CHAPTER XT 
Feeding the Brooder Chicks 85 

CHAPTER XII 
Brooder Houses and How To Build Them 94 

CHAPTER XI II 
Ailments and Diseases of (.'hicks. . . > ... .: 103 

, , ' Ill 

1 ndex 

©CH690860 



JAN-273 

/WO I 



INTRODUCTION 



g~]RTIFICIAL hatching and brooding of chicks is a 
practice almost as old as history, and methods 
rJ substantially the same as those that were in gen- 
oUSI era! use before the dawn of the Christian era still 
are followed in Egypt and other Oriental lands. The 
secrets of the trade are regularly handed down from 
father to son and as jealously guarded, as unchanged ap- 
parently, and as unaffected by modern ideas as when they 
were first developed more than 2,000 years ago. 

Crude as these methods and facilities undoubtedly 
are, they are fairly efficient — at least from an Oriental 
viewpoint, and in Egypt especially, the community "hatch- 
eries" still are the almost exclusive source from which 
native villagers and small farmers secure their annual 
supply of chicks. They are, in fact, essential to the ex- 
istence of the poultry industry, as the fowls kept in that 
country are practically all non-sitters. 

The method of constructing and operating a typical 
Egyptian hatchery is described in a U. S. Consular report 
issued by the Government, from which the following ex- 
tracts are taken: 

"The artificial hatching of eggs has been so long 
practiced in Egypt that the hens have completely aban- 
doned that part of their work to man. It is a regular 
industry and the professors form a very close corpora- 
tion, handing down their secrets from father to son. For 
three months of the year their time is completely ab- 
sorbed by constant attention at the incubatories. 

"The population of Egypt is very dense, about 700 
per square mile. This agglomeration fosters the use of 
large incubatories, each turning out from 300,000 to 
600,000 chicks each season. In some villages there are 
from three to five of these establishments. They are 
generally near some important market place, and each 
one apparently in the center of a district of about 50,000 
population. That is, each one is the center of a circle 
having a radius of five miles. It is this density of the 
population that has allowed this system of artificial 
hatching to become so very successful. 

"The hatchers do not attempt to rear the young 
broods. Forty-eight hours after the chicks emerge from 
the shell they are scattered over the country; overcrowd- 
ing is thus prevented. This distribution is affected in a 
very simple manner. As the incubator is near a market 
place, word is sent there that on such a day there will 
be so many young chicks. This news is quickly dis- 
seminated among the villages, and on the appointed day 
the women arrive with their cages and purchase the young 
chicks, which are generally sold by the hundred for about 
$1.50 per hundred. There are also a number of brokers 
or dealers who take the young chicks to the more dis- 
tant villages. 

"Once in the village the chicks become the property 
of the women, who take great care of them during the 
first week. For two or three days they are kept in cages 
in lots of twenty or thirty and fed on broken grains slight- 
ly moistened. At night the cages are taken into the 
houses and sometimes covered with a bit of cloth. After 
these first few days the young birds are strong enough 
to forage for a living; they then are allowed to roam 
about freely, and at night are kept in a sort of oven 
placed in the corner of the courtyard. This oven is 
made of unburnt clay and in shape is like the letter U 
laid on one side. The top is slightly perforated. The 
entrance is closed by a heavy stone to keep off foxes and 
other vermin. 



"It is difficult to get any exact figures as to the 
number of these incubatories, but judging from those 
personally known to me, and their distances apart, I 
should estimate the number at 150, with an average pro- 
duction of 300,000 chicks per season. This estimate must 
be well within the mark, as the population of Egypt is 
nearly 7,000,000 and fowls form a very large part of the 
Egyptian diet, so that the production of 45,000,000 tabic 
fowls annually would be a short supply. 

"The Egyptian incubatory of today is but a repro- 
duction of the one of thousands of years ago. The ordi- 
nary form is an oblong, 100 feet in length by 60 feet in 
width, the height varying from 12 to 15 feet. The illus- 
tration on page 7, though not drawn exactly to scale, 
shows the general arrangement. The outer chamber A 
is divided into three rooms, the middle one masking the 
entrance to the ovens and thus excluding the outer air. 
The door leading from A into the central hall is very 
small. B represents the ovens of the upper tier. C is 
the manhole; the attendant stands in this and manipu- 
lates the eggs. D D are spaces in the central hall for 
the reception of the young chicks. These spaces are 
marked off by ridges of dried mud about 9 inches in 
height. Fig. 3 is a door giving access to the interior of 
the oven. Around the walls and parallel to it runs a 
raised ridge 6 inches in height; between this and the 
wall the fires are lighted. In the top of the dome is a 
small aperture about two inches square for the exit of 
smoke and for regulating the heat. 

"The outer wall, 4 feet thick, is generally built of 
sun-dried bricks; the mortar is simply mud. The space 
contained within the walls is divided as shown in Fig. 1. 
The circular ovens are built up and the spaces between 
them and the wall filled in with brick and mortar, the 
same as the outer wall. Each set of ovens, the upper 
and the lower, is perfectly independent and is covered by 
a dome having a very small aperture in the crown. Fig. 2 
represents the elevation on the line A B of Fig. 1. The 
height of the lower oven is 4 feet and that of the upper 
one 9 feet. The interior diameter between the ridges 
D D is 15 feet. Fig. 3 represents the elevation on the 
line C D of Fig. 1, and shows the disposition of the cen- 
tral wall and the doors of the ovens. For this particu- 
lar incubatory the attendants consist of two men and 
a boy. 

"In the month of January, about the 10th, fires are 
lighted in all the ovens and on the floor of the central 
hall. The entire building is thoroughly warmed to a 
temperature of 110 degrees Fahrenheit. The fires are at 
fiist composed of gelleh or dried cow dung, but when 
the eggs are placed in the oven, coarse broken straw, 
mostly the joints, and sheep or goat dung is used. The 
fuel is placed in the trough between the hall and the 
ridge, and is lighted at one or more places, according to 
the degrees of heat required. This is the only means of 
regulating the heat. Thermometers are not used. The 
attendants endeavor to keep the heat a trifle greater than 
that of their own skin. While the oven is being warmed, 
notice is sent out to the villages that the establishment 
will purchase eggs on such a date. The country people 
arrive with large crates containing from 1,000 to 2,000. 
These are purchased outright by the establishment at 
the rate of $4.00 per 1,000. 

"The floor of the oven is covered with a coarse mat 
made of palm leaves; on this a little bran is sprinkled tr 
prevent the eggs from rolling. The attendant changes 



the position of the eggs twice a day, taking those from 
near the manhole and placing them on the outer edge of 
the circle and vice versa. The eggs are tested on the 
fourth day and again six days later, the infertile and 
dead germs being removed. After the eggs have been 
iifteen days in the ovens they are daily examined, and so 
delicate is the touch of the attendant that he can at once 
distinguish if the egg is alive by the fact that it should 
be slightly warmer than his own skin. 

"At the expiration of twenty-one days the chicks 
commence to emerge from the shells, the attendants con- 
stantly aiding them. They are placed in the spaces D D, 
illustration 1, and left to dry for nearly forty-eight hours, 
but they are not fed. The sale then commences and in 
a few hours they are spirited away. The temperature in 
the central hall is maintained at 98 F., and that of the 
ovens slightly more." 

Development of the Modern Incubator 

The modern incubator may be said to date from 
about 1875 when the comparatively crude forerunners of 
the present type of lamp-heated incubator appeared on 
the market. To develop the modern incubator, however, 
with its automatic and exact regulation of heat, its 
adaptability to a wide variety of conditions, its sim- 
plicity and its durability, and to do this without making 
the cost exorbitant, was by no means a simple or easy 
matter. These problems however, have been solved — 
unquestionably so, and the standard lamp-heated incuba- 
tor of the present day is truly remarkable in efficiency, 
and low cost, and in ease and accuracy of operation. It 
will bear comparison with any of the modern, high-grade 
"tools" that have been perfected for the use of those en- 
gaged in other lines of agricultural production. 

Lamp-heated incubators now are made in various 
sizes, from 50 to 400-egg capacity or more, the latter ap- 
parently being the practical limit for machines of this 
type. For larger capacity (500 to 2,500 eggs) there are 
incubators heated with oil or gas stoves; and for still 
larger capacity there are mammoth incubators heated 
with hot water, supplied from a central coal, oil or gas 
burning boiler or heater, and furnished in any desired 
capacity up to many thousands of eggs. These huge 
machines are in especial demand on extensive poultry 
farms and in hatcheries, where large capacity must be 
secured along with low operating cost. There also are 
several makes of small incubators heated by means of 
electricity, an entirely practical and economical method 
where current can be secured at reasonable rates. 

Development of Modern Brooding Devices 

In the development of brooding devices, as great or 
even greater progress has been made. These artificial 
mothers are quite simple in construction and operation, 
sre thoroughly practical and efficient, and are moderate 
in cost. The first lamp-heated brooder that could be 
said to be really satisfactory was similar to the one illus- 
trated on page 67, the method of heating which is still 
utilized in many homemade brooders, though the heating 
capacity is limited and such brooders are far from safe 
as regards fire. Various types of brooders and methods 
of providing heat were devised and used to a limited ex- 
tent until the introduction of hovers of the Universal and 
Adaptable types which may be said to have solved the 
problem of thoroughly safe, convenient, and practical 
lamp-heated brooders. These hovers are installed in reg- 
ular brooder cases ready-macre or homemade, or in small 
portable houses. They can be operated indoors in mild 



weather with complete success, without case or other 
enclosure. 

For indoor use, with or without a case, the type of 
lamp-heated hover known as "portable" is especially con- 
venient, as it can be placed directly on the floor of the 
house and requires no holes in wall or floor to adapt 
the building to its use. Portable hovers have a more 
limited range of usefulness, however, owing to their 
lower heating power. Small hovers heated by electric 
current are quite extensively used where conditions are 
favorable. 

Hot water pipe brooding systems have been in use for 
many years. This method of brooding is rather expen- 
sive in first cost, but has no superior where chicks are 
to be brooded in extremely cold weather. There has been 
no particular change in this type of brooder for many 
years, the preference of operators still being divided be- 
tween the "open-pipe" and the closed pipe systems, the 
latter with either overhead or underneath installation. 
For brooding in moderately cold weather, when the great 
majority of chicks are brought out, there are various 
types of colony hovers heated with coal, oil or gas. These 
mammoth hovers brood chicks in flocks of many hun- 
dreds and have almost completely displaced lamp-heated 
hovers where chicks are to be brooded in large numbers. 

A Billion Dollar Industry 

While artificial brooding and incubating is, as we 
have seen, an ancient art, it has only been in compara- 
tively recent years that, chiefly through the genius of 
American inventors, the methods have been modernized 
and made efficient and practical for poultry growers 
everywhere. And it is chiefly because poultry keepers 
now have truly automatic, labor-saving equipment for 
hatching and raising their fowls that the poultry indus- 
try has reached its present great proportions — has be- 
come a "billion-dollar industry." Great as the industry 
now is, the possibilities in the way of still further in- 
creasing the profitable production of table fowls and 
eggs are scarcely realized as yet, and will not be until 
poultry growers generally learn fully to avail themselves 
of the help that the modern incubator and brooder can 
give. 

It is freely conceded that chicks can be successfully 
hatched and reared with hens, and with laborious, pains- 
taking care high averages in eggs hatched and chicks 
raised can be secured in this way. It is doubtful, how- 
ever, whether any one has ever realized a dollar a day 
for the time spent in raising chicks by the natural 
method. The number that any one person can hatch and 
tend with hens is simply too small to make it possible 
to secure anything like adequate returns for the time 
spent. Those who follow the natural method must give 
up the idea of volume, because that method makes vol- 
ume impossible. Two or three or half-a-dozen broody 
hens can be handled with comparative ease, but beyond 
that it becomes real labor — and a serious waste of time. 

If there were any place where the natural method 
could be successfully adopted it would be on the farm 
where there is unlimited room, most favorable natural 
conditions, and where the hens can take care of them- 
selves with the least possible attention. Most of those 
who have tried it, however, know that even on the farm 
it can only be done at the expense of a lot of somebody's 
time, while the broken eggs, deserted nests, lice-infested 
fowls, the hens and chicks taken by various enemies, and 
the many other sources of loss, lay a heavy tax upon 
the farm flock, which is only endured because the ex- 
tent of the losses is seldom realized. Without doubt. 



the general and intelligent adoption of artificial methods 
of raising chicks would, within a very few years, make 
it possible to double the annual income now being real- 
ized from farm poultry. 

There are no grounds for questioning the statement 
that incubators and brooders offer extraordinary facili- 
ties for increasing the earning capacity of those engaged 
in the work. It is not through a mere notion or through 
the possession of unlimited funds, that commercial poul- 
try keepers the country over have come to depend almost 
exclusively on artificial methods. They know that they 
cannot realize a profit on their work unless they do so. 
In the saving of time alone the artificial method com- 
pletely justifies itself. It is common experience that 
where chicks can be raised by hundreds with hens, they 
can be raised by thousands with incubators 
and brooders, and with no more labor. On a 
smaller scale the saving in time is just as 
great, proportionately, and just as important 
from a practical point of view. 

Why Incubators and Brooders Are 
Indispensable 



are able thus to shorten the incubation period and get the 
chicks all off in one or two broods. This brings the work 
of caring for them within a short period of time, whereas, 
when hens are used, the hatching must necessarily string 
along from March to June, as the hens are individually 
pleased to take over this duty, thus multiplying the trou- 
ble of caring for the newly hatched chicks. Most of 
these, of course, will be too late for winter layers, too 
late for the cockerels to command the best broiler prices, 
too late for the most favorable seas'on for raising them — 
too late for about everything that the wide-awake poultry 
keeper considers worth while. And moreover, with chicks 
of various ages and sizes, the later hatches always have 
a struggle for their lives and often lose whatever chance 
they originally had for amounting to anything, through 



_ -r- 



The saving in time is the big thing, of 
course, but incubators and brooders offer 
other advantages as well. The person who 
wishes to raise only a comparatively small 
number of chicks may not care how much it 
costs, in point of time, but everyone certainly 
is interested in raising them the easiest, clean- 
est, and most pleasant way. To the market- 
egg producer the ability to bring off his chicks 
at just the right time to insure a supply of 
pullets for fall and winter laying, is a most 
important asset. The great scarcity of eggs 
at this season (November to February) is due, 
in large measure, to the limited number of 
early-hatched pullets, and this condition will 
continue to exist just as long as hen hatching 
is generally depended upon to maintain the 
laying flocks. This is true because hen hatch- 
ing means late hatching, and late-hatched pul- 
lets are late layers and hence late sitters, and 
that means late hatches again, and so this evil 
perpetuates itself, year after year. Those who 
have incubators, however, are able to bring off 
their chicks at early dates, which practically 
assures them of a profitable fall and winter 
egg yield. 

There is a double advantage to farmers in 
being able to have their chicks hatched out 
early in the season, as this makes it possible 
for them to attend to the work and to carry the chicks 
along past the delicate stage of their existence before the 
regular spring farm work begins to crowd. A little later 
on, plowing, planting, garden making, and an all but im- 
possible assortment of other jobs come in a heap, taxing 
the strength and endurance of everyone in the household. 
But earlier in the season, before it is time to get the 
crops in, or before the ground is dry enough to work, is 
just the time for getting the chicks out, and the easiest 
time, too — if an incubator is used. 

Those who wish to raise a definite number of chicks 
each year in order to have sufficient pullets to keep the 
laying flock up to its usual size without having to carry 
over a lot of old hens, find one of the most important 
advantages in artificial incubation in the fatt that they 




Fig.m 




PLAN OF AN EGYPTIAN HATCHERY 

Fig-. 1 — Ground plan: AAA, rooms making- entrance to incubatory. 
BBB, ovens where eggs are hatched. CC, manholes admitting- attend- 
ants to upper tier. DD, hallway. Pig. II — Sectional view lengthwise. 
AAA, upper chamber to ovens. BBB, lower chambers. CCC, manholes. 
DD, fire spaces. Fig. Ill — Section view lengthwise — same lettering 
as for Fig. II. 



the merciless trampling and crowding that they receive 
from the half-grown youngsters of the first hatches. 

Probably no practical poultry keeper would under- 
take to prove that incubators will hatch more or better 
chicks than good sitting hens, if unmolested, but there 
is no question about the fact that properly operated ma- 
chines will bring off more chicks during the season than 
will be secured from an equal number of eggs set under 
"clucks." This is because, when the latter are set in 
large numbers, it is impossible to give them the time and 
attention necessary to secure maximum results and, as 
a consequence, losses are heavy and there is no practical 
way of preventing them. Even when special hatching 
rooms are provided and the hens have the best of care, 
there always will be some deserted nests, some broken 



eggs, and some lousy hens, which, in the final summing 
up, almost invariably give the incubator the lead. 

Another point that deserves attention is the general 
increase in average egg production which results from 
keeping the hens laying right along, as they will do if 
promptly broken up as soon as they become broody, in- 
stead of allowing them to take two months off for hatch- 
ing and brooding a flock of chicks just at the season of 
the year when they should be doing their heaviest and 
most profitable laying. In spite of the higher prices re- 
ceived during the winter, the average hen pays a larger 
net profit in the spring and early summer than at any 
other time of the year, if steadily productive. 

It is not claimed that hens can be kept laying all 
summer long simply by breaking them up as fast as they 
become broody and putting them back into the laying 
pen again. Most of them have to take a rest sometime 
during the season, and it is something of an art to de- 
termine the right time to let them do this, with the idea 
of having them resume laying about the time eggs begin 
to advance in price in late summer. But whenever the 
time is when they can be given a vacation to best ad- 
vantage, it certainly is not in the early spring. 

Freedom from lice and mites is another important 
advantage possessed by artificially hatched chicks. There 
are few persons who realize the annual destruction caused 
by the ravages of lice among young chicks. The individ- 
ual poultry keeper is entitled to little sympathy in his 
losses from these annoying pests if he refuses to adopt 
the one method that will give him almost complete im- 
munity from them. But the annual loss to the industry 
from so unnecessary a cause, certainly is deplorable from 
an economic viewpoint — a loss that, each year, repre- 
sents a sum almost sufficient to pay for all the necessary 
hatching and brooding equipment that would make it a 
thing of the past. 

Brooders As Important As Incubators 

The value of brooders is even less appreciated than is 
the case with incubators, for which reason especial em- 
phasis should be placed on the great help that they are 
able to render in profitable poultry growing. It is worse 
than useless to hatch chicks unless proper facilities are 
provided for raising them after they are hatched. It is 
little more trouble to raise one hundred chicks in a 
brooder than ten with a hen; and when they are raised 
in still larger numbers by the use of colony hovers which 
brood several hundred in a single flock, the labor cost 
per chick becomes almost negligible. 

Many complaints made by persons who have bought 
; ncubators and have not been satisfied with the results 
secured with them, can be traced to the fact that they 
did not have sufficient brooding capacity to care for the 
chicks after they were hatched. This false economy in 
providing brooders is almost universal, even among ex- 



perienced poultry keepers who certainly ought to know 
better. With good brooders, chicks can be raised at any 
season, the losses will be fewer than with hens, chicks 
will be practically lice-free, can be protected from ene- 
mies, storms, and cold much better than when running 
with hens, and can be given about every other advantage 
that is required for their best and most profitable growth 
and development. 

Incubators and Brooders Easy to Operate 
Modern incubators and brooders, especially those of 
the better sort, are now so well developed and so nearly 
automatic in action that they require a surprisingly small 
amount of attention, and are so simple that any average 
man or women, boy or girl, can operate them successfully, 
and with ease. In a general way, the directions that are 
supplied by the manufacturers with every incubator or 
brooder they sell, contain information sufficient for their 
operation under ordinary conditions. These directions 
present, in condensed form, not only the general instruc- 
tions that are applicable to all incubators alike, but also 
the special detailed information that is essential to the 
successful operation of their particular type of machine. 
'No better advice can be given the beginner than to 
say with all possible emphasis: Follow the manufacturer's 
directions; follow them to the letter! If, after one or two 
trials, results do not seem to be as good as they should, 
write direct to the manufacturer, giving him all the in- 
formation needed to enable him to understand the par- 
ticular conditions under which the machine is being 
operated, and depend upon it, he will be glad to give 
whatever additional instructions are required to insure 
complete success. 

It is not the purpose of this book, therefore, to give 
directions that will take the place of the instructions of 
the manufacturer. These must, as far as they go, take 
precedence over all other advice, written or spoken. The 
manufacturer's instructions however, are necessarily quite 
brief and general, and they leave much unsaid that the 
thoughtful operator wishes to know, and must know if 
he is to make his poultry work the complete success that 
it can and should be. It is at this point that this book 
takes up the subject, supplementing the manufacturer's 
instructions, but not supplanting them. 

In it we have endeavored to give the most reliable, 
up-to-date information available on artificial methods of 
raising chicks and on the allied subjects that are directly 
associated with such work. Recent literature from our 
various state experiment stations has been freely drawn 
upon for much of the experimental data presented, and 
the latest methods of successful, practical poultry grow- 
ers have received no less attention. It is hoped that 
this book will prove interesting and helpful to all chick 
growers, whether they are using but a single incubator 
or brooder, or are turning out chicks by the tens of 
thousands. 



CHAPTER I 



Selection of Breeding Stock 

Success in Hatching and Raising Chicks is Determined to a Great Extent by the Breeding Stock — Importance of Con- 
stitutional Vigor and How to Breed for It — How to Select Fowls for the Breeding Pen — How 
to Care for Them During the Breeding Season and Afterward. 



UCCESS in hatching and brooding chicks, either 
by artificial or natural means, is determined to 
a great extent before the eggs are placed in the 
incubator or under hens. No matter how skillful 
the care, no one can hope to raise chicks successfully or 
profitably if they lack their normal inheritance of health 
and vigor when hatched. And conversely, chicks of the 
right sort will stand a surprising amount of mishandling — 
will survive many mistakes on the part of the well-mean- 
ing but misinformed caretaker, if only they have high 
constitutional vigor to begin with. This character they 
can secure through inheritance. In order to begin at the 
beginning of the subject of 
"Artificial Incubating and 
B r o o d i n g," therefore, the 
fowls from which the hatch- 
ing eggs are to be secured 
must have first considera- 
tion, in order to make cer- 
tain that these eggs are pro- 
duced from stock that is 
suitable for the purpose, and 
that is being bred under 
favorable conditions. 

Choice of Breed 

So far as the problems of 
artificial incubating are di- 
rectly concerned, it is imma- 
terial what breed is chosen. 




breeds. Moreover, early-hatched "Leghorn chicks are not 
paiticularly desirable, as they are not profitable market 
fowls, and the pullets usually come into laying too early 
and soon go into the "fall molt," after which they lay 
few eggs until the approach of spring. 

In all cases, regardless of whether chicks are to be 
hatched on a large or a small scale and regardless of 
bleed selected, fowls of standard quality should be made 
the basis of the breeding flock. It is simply a waste oi 
time and opportunity to start in any line of poultry keep- 
ing with inferior stock. Not only will the sales from 
standard flocks be better and at higher prices, but the 

percentages realized in hatch- 
ing and brooding operations 
will be distinctly better, 
owing to greater uniformity 
in the eggs set and in the 
chicks after they are hatched. 
Irregularity in size and shape 
of eggs, in color and char- 
acter of shell, in vitality of 
germs, etc., are all handi- 
caps in the successful opera- 
tion of incubators and 
brooders, and without doubt 
uniformity in these respects 
can be secured only by the 
use of standard-bred stock. 
In addition, such fowls, if 
from the best strains, will be 



The average operator prob- FIG i_ S TRONG, healthy CHICKS ARE HALF RAISED found to be larger in size, 

ably gets better hatches from sturdy, vigorous chicks like these do not readily sue- higher in vitality, and more 

Leghorn eggs than from cumb to disease or unfavorable conditions The first step productive than those of in- 

. , , , , in securing such chicks is the selection of the right kind , . ,. 

eggs of the larger breeds, of breeding stock. fenor breeding. 

though this is not uniformily 

the case. Both in hatching and in brooding the percent- 
age of loss is influenced more by the condition of the 
breeding fowls than by the particular breed or variety to 
which they belong. It is probable, however, that the 
greater natural activity of small fowls, such as Leghorns, 
results generally in their keeping in better breeding con- 
dition. This, no doubt, is the explanation for the better 
results usually secured with Leghorn eggs, and is the 
basis of the common belief that white-shelled eggs hatch 
better than those with brown shells. 

Persons who expect to make the sale of eggs for 
hatching, day-old chicks, and breeding stock, a more or 
less important source of income, will naturally want to 
consider the preferences of possible customers in regard 
to breed, also whether the breed selected can reasonably 
be expected to produce a liberal supply of eggs at the 
time when they are most wanted for setting. For exam- 
ple, if it is the intention to hatch during extremely cold 
weather, it will hardly be advisable to depend on Leg- 
horns, as fowls of this breed are apt to lay few eggs un- 
dei such conditions. It is true that much can be done to 
conect this by providing comfortable houses for the 
fowls but, as a rule, more eggs and better fertility will 
be secured at this time with the so-called general-purpose 



Constitutional Vigor 

In the selection of individual fowls for the breeding 
pen, constitutional vigor is easily first in importance. As 
has already been stated, hatching percentages and pro- 
portion of chicks raised are largely determined by the 
health and vigor of the breeding fowls. Constitutional 
vigor is not a mysterious or accidental quality, but is the 
result of breeding and careful management. The poultry 
grower who eliminates from his pens every fowl that 
shows any evidence of low vitality, as determined by 
close and constant observation right along from chick- 
hood to the breeding season, and who gives his breeders 
proper care, will have no difficulty in producing chicks 
full of vigor and vitality. 

There are a number of indications of high constitu- 
tional vigor and of the lack of it — some readily distin- 
guished, and some so deeply hidden that only long ex- 
perience or constant observation throughout the growing 
period makes it possible to detect them. The poultry- 
man who appreciates the importance of having only 
strong, vigorous birds in his breeding pens will neglect 
no practical test. In general, breeding fowls should al- 
ways be full size for the breed to which they belong, and 
up to Standard requirements in shape and general breed 



10 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



characters. Of course such familiar and conspicuous evi- 
dences of low vitality as poor condition, undersize, flat, 
narrow breasts, knock knees, long, narrow heads, crow 
bills, dull eyes, low tails, etc., should eliminate the birds 
showing them, regardless of any good qualities that they 
may have, no matter what these may be. Naturally, the 

reverse of these un- 
desirable qualities 
will indicate the birds 
that should be used; 
such as. broad, well- 
rounded breasts, 
broad, full heads (not 
thick or beefy), 
strong medium- 
length beaks, straight 
legs carried upright 
under the body and 
set well apart, an 
alert carriage, eyes 
with "snap," and a 
high degree of activ- 
ity generally. 

There are other in- 
dications of physical 




FIG. 2- 



-A HIGH-CLASS BREEDING 
FEMALE 

There is every appearance of weakness, aside from 
health and superior breeding- value , 

here, but do not depend upon ap- outward appearance, 
pearances alone; apply the tests for that are fiiHv as irr> 
constitutional vigor, as described y as lm ~ 

in text. portant, if less obvi- 

ous. Fowls with cold 
feet are undesirable. Those individuals that have frosted 
combs where others similarly exposed escape injury, 
usually are low in vitality; also males that get out of 
breath or show dark combs after chasing or treading 
hens. It should hardly be necessary to say that fowls 
showing any tendency to diarrhea, having dirty noses 
(indicating catarrhal trouble) or overgrown toe nails 
(indicating indolence, if not poor health) must not be 
bred. 

Even after fowls have passed these superficial tests 
they should be looked upon merely as likely candidates, 
but not to be introduced into the breeding flock until 
they have been kept under observation for some time, 
their appetites and general conduct watched, and the 
droppings under the perches inspected frequently to see 
whether there are any signs of weak digestion. Even after 
the pen is made up, any birds that develop indications of 
physical unfitness should at once be removed. It re- 
quires a high degree of moral courage to discard a fowl 
that may develop some seemingly minor weaknesses but 
which in many other respects is a desirable breeder. 
There is, however, no indication of low vitality that can 
be ignored with safety. In the case of standard-bred 
fowls, the tendency to overlook known deficiences be- 
cause the birds happen to be especially strong in "fancy" 
points, cannot be too strongly condemned. No excel- 
lence in standard requirements offers any compensation 
for a lack of constitutional vigor. 

At the beginning of the hatching season is not the 
best time for selecting breeders, as they usually are at 
the height of their vigor then. Without showing any in- 
dications of this fact they may possess weaknesses that 
will make their use in the breeding pen a source of seri- 
ous loss. This is the reason why the man who raises his 
own stock and who closely observes the birds during 
the growing period, is able to make his selections with 
much greater certainty of getting only desirable 
breeders. 



Bred-to-Lay Stock 

Probably next in practical importance in the selec- 
tion of the breeding pen is getting hens with good 
trap-nest records the previous year, if possible, or pullets 
from such hens. It is believed to be particularly im- 
portant to secure males from heavy laying hens, and 
the more generations of such ancestry represented in the 
strain from which selections are made, the better the 
results are apt to be. It is true that there are a good 
many things that yet remain to be learned about breed- 
ing for increased egg production. Certainly the develop- 
ment of a strain that can be depended upon to transmit 
heavy-laying ability to succeeding generations can be ac- 
complished only by long-continued and careful selection 
and is not to be attained as the result of a single season's 
work. However, where breeding from heavy layers is 
persistently and intelligently carried out it undoubtedly 
will bring results, and it is always wise to purchase breed- 
ing fowls and eggs for hatching from breeders who are 
known to specialize in such stock. 

Caution should be used here, however, as there are 
many who have mistakenly come to attach undue im- 
portance to the laying record, making it the all-in-all, 
and not hesitating to forego standard qualities and even 
individual health and vigor in favor of phenomenal egg 
production. Such a policy is unwise, and must sooner or 
later lead to complete failure. The best possible means 
of establishing a strain capable of transmitting heavy 
laying ability is through the use of standard-bred fowls 
that, along with good to high tgg records, will combine 
established breed characters and the high constitutional 
vigor which make heavy laying ability transmissible. If 
choice must be made between fowls with high records, 
but of non - standard 
breeding, and others 
from an established 
strain, of high consti- 
tutional vigor but 
with only good laying 
records, it usually will 
be found that better 
layers will be pro- 
duced from the lat- 
ter. This is true 
probably because 
heavy laying is de- 
pendent fully as much 
upon uniform breed- 
ing, good health and 
the ability to digest 
large quantities of 
food as it is on an 
inherited tendency to 
heavy production. 




Breeding Related 
Fowls 



FIG. 3— A GOOD MALE FOR 
THE BREEDING PEN 

A sturdy, upstanding- male like 
this one, should head the breed- 
ing pen. There is no question 
reg-arding- the constitutional 
V1 ?°£ of fow]s °f this tvpe. This 
exhibition-quality breeding male 
is owned by W. D. Holterman. 



N o t w i t h standing 
the general and deep- 
seated prejudice 
against inbreeding, 
the poultry breeder who selects his fowls carefully, rig- 
idly excluding every one that shows any sign of physical 
weakness, need have little fear of unfavorable results 
from breeding related birds. There is no other method 
known to breeders that will so quickly and so certainly 
improve quality and establish uniformity in the poultry 
flock— provided, of course, that foundation stock of 






SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK 



11 



superior merit is used to start with. It is true that close 
inbreeding of fowls having common physical weaknesses 
will intensify such characters, causing rapid degenera 
tion. On the other hand, strong constitutional vigor is 
just as certainly intensified in the same way, and if this 
fact is kept in mind and defective birds regularly dis- 
carded, nothing but good results need be expected. 

The fact that inbreeding is one of the poultry keep- 
er's greatest helps in establishing his strain should be con- 
sidered in connection with the common but mistaken 
practice of securing new males each year in order to 
avoid the fancied danger of relationship matings. The 
most successful poultry breeders will under no considera 
tion part with either males or females that have proved 
conspicuously good breeders, but will deliberately breed 
them back to their offspring in order to fix their good 
qualities and the power of transmitting them. There is 
reason for believing that inbreeding is the most effec- 
tive known means of securing that greatly- 
desired quality known as prepotency. 

Fertility and "Hatchability" 

When fowls are properly mated, practic- 
ally all eggs produced by them are fertile, re- 
gardless of season or other general condi- 
tions; but not all fertile eggs will hatch. What 
usually is meant, however, where the term 
fertility is used, is "hatchability" (for lack of 
a better word), which is by no means the 
same thing. The ability to produce hatchable 
eggs is not possessed equally by all hens, but 
varies widely in different individuals. It is 
moreover, a transmissible, character, like shape 
of comb or color of feathers. That is, hens 
that produce eggs characterized by high or 
low hatchability will transmit this tendency 
to their daughters; and by proper selection it 
is believed to be possible to develop strains 
regularly distinguished by this quality. This 
fact is so clearly established that many care- 
ful breeders believe that it pays to utilize 
trap-nests in their breeding pens if only for 
the purpose of detecting the individuals that 
produce eggs of inferior hatching quality. 
The losses due to spoiled eggs, wasted incu- 
bator space and dissatisfied customers more 
than exceed the labor cost of operating the trap-nests. 

Selecting the Male 

The male is by all odds the most important individ- 
ual in the breeding pen, and especial attention must be 
given to his selection. So far as standard qualities go, 
there is only one general suggestion that need be given 
here; get the best male that can be afforded. A high 
price may be no proof of high quality, but a low price 
is pretty generally proof of inferiority. The buyer, there- 
fore, while using due care and business judgment in buy- 
ing, must be willing to pay a good price if he hopes to 
set a good male. A poor one is dear at any price. In 
breeding for increased egg production the male becomes 
of still greater importance, owing to the now generally 
accepted belief that it is through the sons of heavy-laying 
dams rather than through their daughters, that heavy 
ei:p-Iaying ability is transmitted. 

Individually the male should possess every desir- 
able quality previously mentioned as indicative of high 
constitutional vigor, adding to these the masculine 
quality of aggressiveness. The "scrappy" male, and the 



gallant one that is constantly on the lookout for the 
members of his flock, are apt to be up to specifications in 
all physical requirements. A male whose comb or wat- 
tles have been injured by fighting or freezing is none the 
worse for breeding purposes on that account, providing 
he has fully recovered from the effects of the injury. 
However, weak birds are more apt to have frosted combs 
than strong ones, and it is advisable to make sure that 
such injuries have not resulted from this cause. Seal}' 
leg is not a serious matter unless it has developed to 
such an extent as to make the bird lame, but it should 
be treated and thoroughly cured before using the bird 
in the breeding pen. The male should be fully up to 
standard size for the breed to which he belongs and good 
in all breed characters. 

Diseases of the male organs, resulting in partial or 
complete sterility, are more common than is generally 
realized. There is comparatively little danger of the well- 




FIG. 4— RAPID, PROFITABLE GROWTH IMPOSSIBLE 
WITHOUT VIGOR 

These two chicks, like the pair shown in Fig. 9, were hatched and 
brooded under identical conditions, but the "runt" was of parentage low 
in constitutional vigor. Courtesy of Missouri State Poul. Exp. Station. 



developed, "scrappy" male being impotent, but the test 
of service is the only certain one. For this reason the 
pen should be mated up sufficiently in advance of the 
regular breeding season so as to have an opportunity to 
make a change in males if necessary. In buying males, 
or females either for that matter, notice whether there 
is any discharge, foul smelling or otherwise, from the 
vent, also whether the feathers below it are badly soiled 
or matted. Diarrhea, or the tendency to it, is transmis- 
sible, and vent gleet apparently is growing rather com- 
mon. If a single individual in the flock has this dis- 
ease it will quickly spread to all and may prove a source 
of serious loss. 

Cock or Cockerel 

Whether to buy or use cocks or cockerels will de- 
pend on circumstances. Cocks can generally be pur- 
chased at less cost than cockerels of equal quality and 
may prove much better value for the money. A good 
male should be serviceable for four or five years, if 
properly cared for and not overworked. To discard him 
at the end of his first season is a wasteful practice and is 



12 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



uncalled for in any rational system of breeding. Hence 
\i one or two-year-old males can be bought at a marked 
reduction from the price of cockerels they should prove 
a good investment, especially if it is possible to secure 
a favorable report on their previous performance, and if 
they are in good physical condition. 

Another advantage in buying cocks is that physical 
weaknesses that escape notice in the cockerel are more 
readily detected in older birds. Males are often sub- 
jected to brutal neglect and mistreatment out of the 
breeding season, however, and in buying it is important 
to be sure that they have received no injuries from this 
cause. For mating with pullets, cocks are considered es- 
pecially desirable as they are expected to offset any dis- 
advantage growing out of immaturity in the females. It 
is generally believed that from a mating of cock and pul- 
lets a larger proportion of pullets will be secured than in 
the case of a cockerel-and-pullet, or cock-and-hen mating. 

If cockerels are to be used, select those that are well- 
niatured. Much loss annually results from the use of 
immature birds in the breeding pen — a frequent cause of 
poor hatches and weak chicks, especially toward the end 
of the breeding season when young males are apt to 
weaken, with a marked falling oft in fertility as a direct 
consequence. Well-developed young birds may go through 
the season without serious loss of vigor if mated in com- 
paratively small flocks and non-forcing conditions are 
maintained throughout, but immature ones are almost 
certain to fail before the end of the season. In selecting 
cockerels avoid those that have plainly been cowed. It 
is not a mark of inferiority from a breeding viewpoint for 
one cockerel to be whipped by another in a fight. That 
test literally applied would eliminate all but one from 
any flock. But cockerels that are distinctly cowed and 
willing to accept "peace at any price," are worthless as 
breeders. 

Selection of Females 

The poultry breeder's problems would be compara- 
tively simple if males and females of equal quality could 





FIG. 6 — EXHIBITION QUALITY HEN 
WITH HIGH EGG RECORD 

This S. C. White Leghorn hen 
made a record of 288 eggs in 
twelve months and is of a famous 
show strain in which high egg pro- 
duction also is demanded. Hens of 
inferior quality may be good lay- 
ers, but they have no place in the 
breeding pen. 



FIG. 5— A STANDARD-BRED LEGHORN COCK 
This splendid exhibition cock is a good example of 
the kind of high-vigor males that should head the breed- 
ing pen. It is NOT necessary to sacrifice standard qual- 
ities to secure practical values. The cock shown in 
above illustration is owned by Geo. B. Ferris. 



always be mated to- 
gether, in which 
case they should 
transmit their char- 
acters uniformily 
and without change. 
Unfortunately such 
matings are not pos- 
s i b 1 e in practical 
breeding, and it is 
necessary to try to 
strike an average by 
matching the re- 
spective weaknesses 
and good qualities 
of the fowls; select- 
ing females that are 
strong where the 
male is weak, or the 
other way around. 
For example, if the 
male is a little un- 
d e r s i z e for the 
breed, hens are se- 
lected for mating with him that are somewhat oversize. 
If the male's color is not quite what it should be, females 
mated with him must be especially strong in that re- 
spect. This method of mating, when properly handled, 
often produces fowls better in quality — that is, more 
closely corresponding to the Standard description — than 
either of their parents, but it has distinct limitations and 
must not be carried to extremes, as in the mating of vio- 
lent contrasts, which practice never gives satisfactory 
results. 

One and two-year-old hens are almost always bet- 
ter breeders than pullets, and they should be employed 
for this purpose as far as possible. If there is oppor- 
tunity to consult trap-nest records made by the hens 
during the preceding year, all that have made conspicu- 
ously poor records will, of course, be discarded; also all 
that lay misshapen eggs or very small or overlarge ones, 
and those marked by irregular shape or texture of shell. 
In the absence of trap-nest records, apply the various 
recognized tests for laying ability, such as the shank 
color test, spread of pelvic bones, date of molting, etc. 
All of these are of practical value in determining the pre- 
vious performance of hens. 

Future egg production may be determined with a 
fair degree of accuracy by performance in the pullet year. 
This is not an infallible test, as there will always be some 
that will make high records in the pullet year that will 
not "come back" in the second season, while others will 
prove better layers in their second year than in the first. 
Speaking generally however, the chances for good egg 
yields in the second year are always in favor of the hens 
that have laid well as pullets. 

It has been definitely shown that yellow-skinned 
fowls rapidly lose the bright color of shanks and beaks 
when laying heavily, so that pale shanks and beaks in 
late summer usually are characteristics of the best lay- 
ers. In applying this test it is necessary to discriminate 
between hens that have faded shanks as a result of heavy 
laying, and those that are naturally pale in shank color, 
or that have become so as the result of ill health or 
through the action of the soil, some kinds of which will 
bleach out the shanks regardless of whether the hens 
have laid well or not. With suitable correction for these 
exceptions, however, and considering beaks as well as 



SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK 



li 



shanks, this test will prove to be fairly reliable, especial- 
ly if applied about the time the fowls have stopped for 
the fall molt. The color comes back into the shanks 
gradually after laying ceases, so that after some time has 
elapsed the test cannot be applied with any degree of 
accuracy. Fowls that are good layers also have quite 
pliable pelvic bones, set wide apart, the position being 
readily determined by a slight pressure of the fingers on 
the fowl's body, just below the vent. This test should be 
applied in connection with the shank-color test. 

It has been found that late molting hens are almost 
invariably the best layers of the preceding year, while 
the hens that molt early and have their new coat of feath- 
ers well in advance of cold weather generally are the 
poorest layers of the flock. Late molters may be han- 
dicapped by the necessity for making the change in cold 
weather, and often need special protection to keep them 
from suffering. They make short work of the molt when 
they get at it, however, and almost invariably will lay 
more winter eggs, in spite of this, than the hens that 
have molted weeks or months before. 

Care of Breeding Fowls Out of Season 

If in position to do so, it often is desirable to pur- 
chase breeding fowls for the next season's use, in the 

summer. They us- 
ually can be 
bought at moder- 
ate prices then, 
and this is the 
most favorable 
time for selection, 
as they are more 
likely to show 
their defects at the 
end of the breed- 
ing season, and it 
is, of course, just 
the right time to 
select the best 
layers. Moreover, 
the value of old 
birds as breeders 
the next season 
will depend a good 
deal on the way 
they are handled 
during the fall 
and winter. 

The common recommendation to separate males from 
females out of the breeding season, is of questionable 
value under average conditions. Whether it is true, as 
some believe, that this violent change in habits is liable 
to result in injury to the sexual organs of the males does 
not appear to have been definitely proved by experi- 
ments, but there are some good practical reasons for be- 
lieving that the average person will get better results by 
letting the males run with the flock or, better still, con- 
fining them in comfortable, roomy quarters with a small 
number of females, unless especially favorable conditions 
can be provided for them elsewhere. It is not necessa- 
rily so but, as a rule, males that are penned together or 
singly are almost certain to suffer from neglect, and any- 
thing that results in their getting out of condition will 
prove a distinct disadvantage in the long run. 

The practice of penning single males -in small coops, 
such as exhibition coops, with barely room to turn 
around and without any outdoor runs is probably the 




FIG. 7— A POOR LATER AND 
BREEDER 
This hen molted in late summer 
and only laid 36 eggs in her pullet 
year. Avoid early molters for the 
breeding; pen. Photo from Cornell 
University. 




FIG. 8- 



-ROOSTING CLOSET FOR 
BREEDERS 



In cold climates fowls with large 
combs need special protection to pre- 
vent frost bites, which may destroy 
their breeding value for many weeks. 



worst plan of all, if such imprisonment is continued for 
long periods. It often is necessary to do this where the 
fowls are of exhibition quality or are kept for sale later 
on in the season, in which case it is not wise to risk the 
injuries that may result from fighting. It is highly im- 
portant, however, that during the off season, the male 
shall have every facility for regaining his strength and 
vigor, and he can 
not do this if 
cooped up in close 
quarters, under 
questionable sani- 
tary conditions or 
where he is liable 
to be neglected 
and poorly fed. 
Where there are 
several strange 
males running to- 
gether either in 
stag flocks or with 

hens, there is apt to be some fighting, but if there is 
plenty of range or large yards, and the precaution is 
taken to trim the toe-nails and the beaks so as to make 
them blunt and a little sensitive, the birds will establish 
their "spheres of influence" without serious injury to 
each other. 

The rations of the breeders, males and females alike, 
should be non-stimulating during the off season, and may 
consist mainly of hard grains scattered broadcast or 
buried in the litter to promote exercise. There should 
be little meat in the ration and what mash is fed should 
be given dry in hoppers. Supply all the green feed the 
birds will eat. 

Cloth-front houses are ideal tor breeders, and close, 
warm houses should never be used. Except in extremely 
cold weather the birds should have access to the yards 
or range all day long. The more time they spend out- 
doors the better it will be for their general health. Warm 
houses are debilitating, and experiments have shown that 
breeding stock confined to them invariably lose in vital- 
ity and in ability to produce good hatching eggs. There 
is a wide difference between cuddling and unlimited ex- 
posure, however, and the breeder will do well to avoid 
either. Be careful to prevent frosted combs, especially 
at the opening of winter, but not over-careful. If cold 
weather comes on gradually the fowls will become ac- 
customed to it and will stand much lower temperatures 




FIG. 9— EFFECT OF CONSTITUTIONAL WEAKNESS 
These chicks were hatched in the same incubator 
and brooded together under identical conditions. The 
difference in growth is directly due to difference in 
constitutional vigor. It pays to cull out every breed- 
ing fowl that is low in vitality. Also see Fig. 4. 



14 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



without injury than is possible when the cold sets in early 
in the winter. 

Males are more liable to injury from frost bites than 
hens, owing to the larger size of their combs and wat- 
tles. It often pays to provide a small cloth-covered roost- 
ing coop where they can be confined on extremely cold 
nights. The small coop often provided for brooding 
hens at one end. of the perches, will answer nicely for 
this purpose if the sides are curtained. The male will be 
safe from injury here while the rest of the flock will 
have all the advantage of the hardening that comes from 
continued exposure to low temperatures. Remember, 
however, that extreme exposure is of no practical ad 
vantage; fowls are hardened by cold, even severe cold, 
but they are injured and in no way benefitted by expo- 
sure to conditions so severe as to cause actual suffering. 

After winter sets in the breeders should have sepa- 
rate quarters with as much room a's possible. It is not 
at all desirable to have them do any laying until about 
the opening of the breeding season, and they should be 
fed accordingly. Do not neglect them at this time, how- 
ever, simply because they are not producing eggs. While 
the average one and two-year-old hens are at their best 
as breeders, if in good physical condition, lack of exer- 
cise, unsanitary quarters, and feeding for egg production 
previous to the breeding season, will seriously impair 
their value. At this time they should be kept in good 
flesh, but not fat. Overfed fowls and those that are half 
starved are alike undesirable. 

A good ration for idle breeders is a mixture of equal 
parts of cracked corn and whole oats, with an equal por- 
tion of wheat or barley if obtainable. Feed this in 
plenty of litter so that the fowls will have an abundance 
of exercise in digging it out. The mash may consist of 
equal parts, by weight, of bran and middlings, with ten 
per cent of meat scrap added, feeding it dry in hoppers. 
With a dry mash formula like this there is little danger 
of their eating too much, but it should always be kept 
before them. Plenty of green food should be supplied, 
of course, sprouted oats being by far the most desirable 
if they can be provided. 

Care of Young Breeding Stock 

During the growing season chicks that are intended 
for the breeding pen should have all possible range, and 



plenty of nourishing but non-forcing food. All through 
the growing season they should be under observation, 
culling out the ones that develop defects or show any in- 
dication of low vigor. It is a good plan to mark all the 
chicks that, at any time during their growth, show un- 
desirable qualities, doing so by clipping the point of the 
toe, punching the web of the foot or otherwise marking 
them in some unmistakable manner so that there will 
be no chance of their being overlooked and getting into 
the breeding pen later on. It often happens that birds 
that at some stage of their growth develop unmistakable 
signs of weakness, afterward recover and at the breeding 
season appear to be as good as any of the rest, but are 
inferior in vigor in spite of their appearance. 

One point that is of great importance in the hand- 
ling of young stock is to see to it that none that are in- 
tended for the breeding pen are allowed to crowd in 
brooders or coops during the growing period. It never 
pays to permit crowding, but in the case of next year's 
breeders it is doubly objectionable. Feed a good grow- 
ing ration, with plenty of oats and succulent green stuff, 
and a reasonable allowance of meat scraps or other ani- 
mal food, and give all the liberty possible. 

If pullets and cockerels are to be used they should 
be selected from those hatched neither too early nor too 
late. Pullets hatched quite early, so that they begin lay- 
ing in the fall, are apt to be undesirable as breeders, as 
they will be more or less exhausted by heavy laying. 
They can often be used to good advantage in the early 
part of the season, but should not be depended upon after 
the season is well advanced. 

It is not wise to attempt to hold back early pullets, 
however, and prevent their laying, with the idea that in 
this way their strength and vigor will be conserved for 
the breeding season. It is much better to let them lay, 
if they do so naturally, using them early in the season, if 
necessary, but depending upon hens or later-hatched pul- 
lets for the major part of the supply of hatching eggs. 
Pullets that are not fully grown or are just beginning to 
lay must not be used, as chicks hatched from their eggs 
will be undersized and weakly, difficult to raise, and not 
desirable even when grown. If pullets must be placed in 
the breeding pen, therefore, select those that have come 
naturally to maturity without any forcing, and that have 
laid for a short time only before the season opens. 




FIG. 10.— A FINE BREEDING PEN OF WHITE WYANDOTTES 
Bred by J. C. Fishel & Sons 



CHAPTER II 



Management of Breeding Stock 

When to Mate the Breeding Pens— Number of Females to the Male— General Directions for Housing, Feeding, and 
Caring for Breeding Fowls so as to Insure High Fertility and Strong Chicks— Some Common 
Mistakes That Result in Poor Hatches, and How to Avoid Them. ' 



O FAR as the subject of "Artificial Hatching and 
Brooding" is concerned, interest in the breeding 
pen centers in the production of fertile eggs that 
will hatch strong, vigorous chicks, and the man- 
agement of the flock is considered here solely from that 
viewpoint. In general, the breeding pen should have 
about the same housing conditions as are found most 
desirable for the laying flock, differ- 
ing only in the respect that the 
breeders must have more room, both 
in and outdoors, and in extreme cli- 
mates the house must be warm 
enough to afford reasonable protec- 
tion. The breeding flock must under 
no conditions be coddled, but hard- 
ened to the greatest extent possible 
-without exposing them to conditions 
that will cause actual suffering or 
injury, which might destroy their 
breeding value for weeks to come. 
However, there is no wisdom or 
practical advantage in exposing fowls 
to such an extent that their combs 
will be frozen, and it should be pos- 
sible to make the hpuse warm 
enough to prevent such injuries. 

It should be remembered in this 
connection, that since breeding fowls 
have, or should have, more floor 
space per hen than usually is the 
case in laying pens, and are kept in 
much smaller flocks, they will be less 
able to keep each other warm on the 
perches at night, and for this rea- 
son need warmer houses than the 
layers. As a rule, if the house is well 
built with the open front provided 
with muslin-covered frames or cur- 
tains that can be closed tight in ex- 
treme weather, nothing more will be 

required, except in the coldest sections, where roosting 
closets such as the one shown - in Fig. 8 will prove 
desirable. 

The size of the house or pen will be determined by 
various factors, but it is desirable in all cases to give the 
breeders plenty of floor space. Not less than six square 
feet per hen should be provided in all cases, and eight 
square feet is better for small flocks. For example, if 
the breeding pen is to consist of about twelve hens, the 
pen or house should be 8x10, 8x12, or even 10x10 feet. 
Many poultry plants are equipped with a number of 
portable houses of about this size and when such are 
available they should by all means be utilized. 

Extra small breeding pens can be provided for quite 
cheaply by using portable buildings like the one shown 
in Fig. 13. There are various inconveniences connected 
with caring for fowls in extremely small structures, but 
where the breeding pen is small and is to be kept mated 
for only a short time, it hardly is practical to provide ex- 



pensive permanent houses and yards. The coop and yard 
here illustrated can readily be shifted to new ground at 
frequent intervals, little cleaning will be required and, 
during the growing season, the supply of green food will 
be taken care of without trouble. A convenient house, 
suitable for a single breeding pen, is shown in Fig. 12. 
It is portable and comparatively low in cost and may be 



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FIG. 11— A PERMANENT BREEDING HOUSE 

Where the poultry plant is permanently established and the breeding 1 of 
fowls is to be carried on extensively, a permanent breeding house suitably 
planned, with yards of ample size, will prove a profitable investment. The 
house here shown is excellent for mild climates, but for use in the north it 
should have smaller openings in the front, protected by tight-fitting- muslin- 
covered shutters. 



utilized as a colony house for brooder chicks or growing 
stock when no l<?nger required for the use of breeding 
fowls. 

A permanent compartment breeding house is shown 
in Fig. 11. Houses of this type are desirable where special 
attention is given to systematic breeding, in which case 
the fowls must necessarily be kept yarded in separate 
flocks. If regular laying houses are to be used for breed- 
ing fowls, flock matings usually will be resorted to. A 
pen 20x20 feet or 16x25 feet will readily accommodate 50 
to 70 females for which number three to five males must 
be provided. As a rule it is more practical to follow this 
plan than to attempt to divide the space into the neces- 
sary small compartments for single flock matings. 

Whether small or large flocks are kept, the yards 
should be as large as it is practical to make them. The 
birds will do better, fertility will be higher, and the chicks 
will be better and stronger if the fowls can have plenty 
cf room. Open range for the breeders is the ideal con- 



15 



16 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




FIG. 12— SMALL COLONY HOUSE FOR BREEDING PEN 
Colony houses of the above type provide ample room 
for a medium-sized breeding flock and can be located 
wherever convenient for the care of the fowls. When 
not needed for the breeding pen they afford excellent 
quarters for growing stock. Photo from U. S. Department 
of Agriculture. 

dition, of course, but this can seldom be provided, and 
large yards then become the only practical alternative. A 
grass sod should be maintained on the yards, if possible, 
so that the birds can secure their green food in the nat- 
ural way, and the yards should be located where there is 
plenty of natural shade, if choice in the matter is possi- 
ble. There is no question that fowls confined in yards 
such as are illustrated in Fig. 14 will do better and their 
chicks will do better, other things being equal, than would 
be the case with fowls confined in small bare yards like 
the unfortunates shown in Fig. 16. 

Mating the Breeding Pens 

The exact date at which the breeding pens should be 
mated will depend to a great extent on the plans of the 
breeder, also on available houseroom. There are so 
many advantages in favor of early mating and so little 
practical objection to it that, if regular breeding houses 
or laying pens are to be used and are available at this 
time, it is advisable to place the 
fowls in their permanent quarters 
when they are housed for the winter. 
This will make it possible to give 
them the special feeding and care that 
they should receive from this time 
.on, and to do this in the most con- 
venient manner. It is not meant by 
this that the fowls are to be mated 
up for the breeding season at that 
time; the final adjustments will be 
made later. But it is just as well to 
sort and pen the birds carefully so 
as to have as few changes as possi- 
ble to make later on. 

Keep the birds under close obser- 
vation and make notes regarding final 
combinations but do not keep shift- 
ing them from pen to pen, as one 
or two strange birds in a flock are 
apt to be set upon and abused by 
the rest. For this reason the shift- 
ing should all be done at one time 
if possible. If cockerels are to be 
used they may be left running to- 
gether until the pens are finally 



mated up and there will be little quarreling among them 
if they are separated from the rest of the flock. Adult 
males may be left running with small pens of hens or 
confined separately if desirable, provided they are well 
cared for (see Chapter 1). 

Whatever the date at which hatching operations are 
to begin, the pens should always be mated up well in 
advance of that time. About five weeks may be allowed 
from the date when the first eggs are saved until the 
hatch comes off, and then it is wise to allow at least 
two weeks more to give the birds time to get acquainted, 
to detect sterility in the male, if it exists, and to make 
any final adjustments among the females, due to par- 
tiality on the part of the male or to other causes. After 
the hatching season begins delays are always unfortu- 
nate and readjustments in the breeding pen then may 
cause serious loss. 

Even in the northern states it is practical to bring 
chicks off as early as the latter part of February, pro- 
vided there are proper facilities for caring for them, and 
this means that collecting eggs for hatching must begin 
about the middle of lanuary. In that case the first of 
the year is none too soon for mating the pens. Pullets of 
the Asiatic breeds, or Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans, 
if hatched by March 1st, should begin laying in October, 
while the cockerels will be salable as squab broilers the 
latter part of April, or as regular broilers two weeks to 
a month later, when they should command the highest 
prices of the season. 

With some strains and under some conditions as to 
care and feeding, there is danger that pullets hatched be- 
fore March will begin laying too early in the fall, result- 
ing in the objectionable "fall molt" later on, but this 
does not often happen with the breeds mentioned. If 
Wyandottes or R. I. Reds are to be hatched it will be 
better to delay the hatching date until after the middle 
of March, unless there is sale for the chicks. With the 
same exception it will be found better, as a rule, to de- 
lay hatching Leghorns and similar breeds until the first 
of April or later. 

Size of Breeding Flock 

The size of the breeding flock or the number of fe- 




FIG. 13— PORTABLE COOP AND RUN FOR SMALL BREEDING PEN 

Close confinement for breeding fowls, while not desirable, is often neces- 
sary. For a small flock, or a few specially mated fowls, this combination port- 
able outfit can be used to good advantage. The fowls will keep in good con- 
dition if carefully fed and the coop and run frequently moved to new locations. 



MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 



17 



males that may be mated with one male can not be arbi- 
trarily fixed, as there are a number of things to be con- 
sidered. The age and individuality of the male has much 
to do with determining the number of females with 
which he should be mated. There are instances on rec- 
ord of flocks of 40, 60, and even 80 females mated to one 
male, with excellent fertility resulting, but such matings 
are too extreme to be considered in practical breeding. 
Especially with fowls in confinement, poultry breeders 
have found that the breeding pen must be comparatively 
small if good results are to be secured throughout the 
season. It is possible successfully to mate large numbers 
of fowls with a single male for a limited time, especially 
if the latter is young, but if long continued the practice 
will result in the cockerel's exhaustion. 

If the breeder cares to go to the trouble of stud 
mating (that is, keeping the male confined separately and 
placing individual hens with him only for service) the 
number served by one male can be largely increased, es- 
pecially since it is by no means necessary that the hens 
be served daily. Many poultry breeders having valuable 
males that they are desirous of using in the most effici- 
ent way, are following this plan with good results. Com- 
paratively few breeders will be in- 
terested in this method but will want 
to allow the usual free mating, and 
where this is done the number of 
hens will be found to be limited by 
the season of the year, the amount of 
liberty the birds have, the age and 
vigor of the male, the breed to which 
the fowls belong, and the length of 
time that the pen is to be mated. 

In cold weather the fowls are not 
as active and do not mate as readily 
as in warmer weather, neither will 
yarded fowls or those confined to 
house pens mate as readily as on 
open range or in large yards. It is 
hardly necessary to call attention to 
the fact that there is a wide differ- 
ence in the mating ability of individ- 
ual males, and it is common knowledge that the larger 
and heavier fowls do not mate as readily or as freely as 
the more active breeds, such as Leghorns. Finally, if 
it is the intention to use eggs from the pen for a long 
period it will be necessary to conserve the powers of 
the male to some extent, by keeping the number of fe- 
males well below the extreme limit. 

With all these factors in mind, the breeder who is 
anxious to secure the best practical results from his 
fowls will mate about as follows: With the larger breeds 
such as Plymouth Rocks, Orpingtons, Brahmas, Wyan- 
dottes, etc., and in the winter season, the number of fe- 
males will be limited to not more than six or eight if a 
cock is used, or two or three more if mated with a vig- 
orous cockerel. Later in the season, when the fowls 
have outside runs, the number may be increased 25 per 
cent or more. In the case of Leghorns the minimum 
number need not be below ten and may be increased to 
as many as 20 to 25, with vigorous young cockerels, and 
during mild weather. With fowls on open range, in the 
height of the breeding season, the number may be still 
further increased. However, since the pens usually are 
mated up well in advance of the natural breeding season 
and are kept in more or less close confinement, it seldom 
is practical to make successive additions to the flock as 
here described, and it is advisable to keep within the 



general limits of 10 to 20 females to one male, reducing 
the minimum number if results demand it, and increasing 
the maximum only under most favorable conditions. 

What are known as flock matings, in which large 
numbers are kept in one flock with males provided in 
the proportion of 4 to 6 for each hundred females, are 
quite common and are entirely practical where eggs are 
to be produced for incubation without regard for indi- 
vidual breeding. This practice is especially common with 
Leghorns, and on farms generally. Where flock mating 
is practiced it is desirable to provide plenty of males in 
order that if any prove to be undesirable or defective they 
can be removed without the necessity of putting in addi- 
tional ones. When males are raised together, or are 
penned together for a time so that they can get ac- 
quainted before being put with the hens, there should be 
little fighting, but if strange males are used or new ones 
are introduced into the flock after the season opens, 
fighting is about certain to ensue and may cause serious 
trouble. 

It is well known that males often develop prefer- 
ences among the hens in their flock, paying especial at- 
tention to some while others are almost entirely neg- 




FIG. 14— A WELL-SHADED YARD TS DESIRABLE FOR THE 
BREEDING PEN 

lected. This is a common cause of low fertility. The 
only practical way to correct this in pen matings is to 
detect the neglected hens, which may readily be done by 
the use of trap nests, and they may then be removed and 
placed in other pens, when the fertility of their eggs us- 
ually will improve at once. This is one of the chief 
reasons why flock matings often produce better fertility 
than is secured in single pens. 

In flock matings there is always considerable inter- 
ference among males, especially when the fowls are 
more or less closely confined, and it is worth while to 
provide a degree of privacy for the mating birds. Short 
partitions extending out about midway into the pen, are 
a help, also large yards. Some breeders find it worth 
while to provide breeding boards such as the one illus- 
trated in Fig. 15. 

Rations for Breeding Fowls 

The method of feeding the breeding flock out of 
season is described in the preceding chapter. As the 
hatching season approaches and the fowls are to be put 
into good laying condition, the ration should be changed 
so that they will get a better laying ration, though forc- 
ing must be avoided, especially if the breeding season is 
to be a long one. Poultry rations generally are subject 
to such modifications as are indicated by market prices 



18 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




FIG. 15— A BREEDING BOARD 
In flock-mated pens it often is desirable to afford 
some privacy for mating' fowls, to prevent interference 
from other males. A few inexpensive screens like the 
one shown above, properly placed, will accomplish this 
purpose. Photo from McDonald (Que.) College. 

and availability, and it is not always practicable to pro- 
vide just what is wanted or would be considered essential 
under more favorable conditions. It is only practical to 
suggest here what may be called a good all-round ration, 
leaving it to each feeder to modify this to meet the con- 
ditions existing in his own feed market. 

It is desirable at all times to provide reasonable va- 
riety in the ration of the breeding flock, though it also 
is possible to get along with comparatively limited range 
of choice in foods if the feeding is carefully done. For 
the grain part of the ration, equal parts by measure of 
cracked corn, feeding wheat, heavy oats, and barley will 
make an excellent mixture. Wheat and barley may be 
omitted if necessary, making the mixture then about two 
parts of cracked corn to one of oats, by measure, if oats 
are used also in the mash and as a source of green food, 
otherwise use equal parts of corn and oats, provided the 
oats are plump and heavy. Any other grains that are 
available may be used in reasonable proportion. 

For the mash mixture an ideal formula is: Bran, 
middlings, corn meal and rolled or crushed oats, in equal 
parts by measure; one-half part each of gluten feed and 
meat scrap; five to eight per cent of oil meal. This makes 
a fairly rich mixture, and does not differ materially from 
the formula that probably will be fed to the regular lay- 
ing flock. The portion consumed, however, should be 
below that recommended for layers. If the mash is fed 
dry in hoppers it is not likely that consumption will ex- 
ceed the desired proportion and may fall below it. In 
this case it will be necessary to give the fowls a feed 
of moist mash daily, as they will lay better and their 
eggs will hatch better if they get a reasonable amount 
of this. If the consumption of dry mash is too low and 
there are objections to feeding it daily in moist condition, 
the formula may be changed to make it more palatable, 
usually by adding more meat scrap and coarse corn meal. 
If the fowls eat too much of the dry mash, however, the 
proportion of bran should be increased. 

The use of dry mash, giving the fowls access to it at 
all times during the day, is an important aid to keeping 
them in good condition and properly nourished, and 
should not be omitted unless there is some extremely 
good reason for doing so. If it is not possible to secure 
..he mash ingredients here recommended, the feeder will 
have to do the best he can to replace them with locally 
available substitutes or to get along with less variety. 
Even if it is necessary to limit the mash to bran, white 



middlings, and meat scrap, it still is possible to get good 
results, though the fowls may refuse to eat a sufficient 
amount of it unless fed as a moist mash. Whatever else 
is used or omitted from the mash, meat scrap, fish meal, 
fresh butcher's scraps or green cut bone must be liberally 
supplied — not less than 15 to 20 per cent of the total 
weight of the mixture. Experiments have shown that ra- 
tions deficient in animal food will certainly cause poor 
hatches. Reasonably heavy feeding also is essential to 
strong fertility and hatches are almost always unsatis- 
factory where the fowls are kept on scant rations. 

Abundant exercise is of the greatest importance in 
the wellbeing of the breeding flock and to a high hatch- 
ing percentage in the eggs produced, especially when the 
fowls are in confinement. For this reason whole corn 
should not be fed, unless on cold nights, and abundant 
floor litter must be provided. A variation of 100 per 
cent in fertility has been observed in experimental pens 
where the only difference in treatment was the method 
of feeding, one pen getting its grain in' two feeds on a 
practically bare floor, while the grain ration of the other 
was fed four or five times a day, and buried in deep 
litter so that the birds had to dig for it and had to spend 
practically the entire day hunting for this part of the 
ration. This extreme method of feeding may not be prac- 
tical for the average poultry breeder, but he can at least 
divide the day's grain ration into three separate feeds, 
giving them morning, noon and evening and always bury- 
ing the grain in litter, which should be deep enough to 
hide it thoroughly. 

Where this is done, the evening meal must be given 
early enough so that the fowls will be able to secure a 
full feed before dark. No harm will be done if some is 
left in the litter after the fowls are through feeding for 
the night, as this will be an incentive to get down from 
the perches next morning as soon as they can see, and 
get to work again. Remember that breeding fowls need 
reasonable variety in the ration and it is not desirable to 
feed too heavily on any one grain, no matter how conve- 
nient it may be to do so, or how cheap in comparison 
with other grains. True economy in the feeding of fowls 
consists in supplying the ration that they most need and 
on which they will give the best returns, even though it 
may cost a little more per pound than something else less 
desirable or effective. 

Much has been said in regard to the necessity for 
providing a ration for the breeding stock which shall con- 
tain everything required, and in just the right propor- 



,ood 




FIG. 16— ONE CAUSE OF POOR HATCHES 

Constant confinement in small, bare yards will break down 

the vitality of the best of fowls. 



MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 



i') 




FIG. 



-PARTS OF HOME-MADE TRAP NEST 



Galvanized iron door, 9x9 inches square. Edges 
turned to stiffen. Upper edge has No. 9 fence wire 
inserted in fold, this wire extending about % of 
an inch at each end beyond sides of the door. 
B — "Wooden trigger, %x% of an inch in width and 
thickness, and 2y 2 inches in length. Has notch cut 
in lower end. Upper end has common wire staples 
driven in part way, with an extra staple looped 
through this one. Is fastened to cross top rail (see 
Fig. 1!') so that galvanized iron door will just 
clear it nicelv when raised. C — Top rail % of an 
inch x 2 x 12 inches. Trigger (B) is to be attached 
to this rail. D and E — Front and back of nest — 
duplicates; 12'A inches wide x 10% inches high. 
Bottom rail, V» of an inch x 3 x 12 V 2 inches. Top 
rail, 7 /g of an inch x Hi x 12% inches. Side rail, 
% of an inch x 2 x 6 \' z inches. Strips are % x% 
of an inch x 10 ?i inches. Back of nest can be made 
solid if desired. F and I — Sides of nest each Yg, of 
an inch x 10'i x 20*2 inches. G — Bottom of nest 
or floor, z's of "an inch x 12 7 / 3 x20% inches. H — Strip 
% of an inch x 2% x 12 inches. Used mid-way be- 
tween front and back of nest to hold nest material 
in place. See Figs. 18 and 19, for nest in operation. 

tions, for egg formation and the development of the 
chick. There is no reason for thinking that the practical 
breeder need concern himself about this matter, beyond 
observing a few general requirements. While the egg 
contains a bewildering variety of constituents, it is not 
probable that any of these are deficient in any ration 
affording reasonable variety, especially if it carries a 
fair proportion of oats, bran, and meat scrap. The de- 
sirability of increasing the proportion of phosphorus has 





been widely discussed, but never clearly proved. However, 
since there is some question on this point and since 
fowls undoubtedly can and do assimilate both the phos- 
phorus and lime in bones, it is recommended that some 
cracked bone or bone meal be added to the ration, unless 
the meat scrap carries a liberal proportion of bone. 

Oyster shell and grit will of course, be supplied in 
hoppers and kept before the fowls all the time. Keep 
the hoppers clean and free from dirt or litter, as fowls 
will not eat as much of this material as they really need 
when laying heavily, if it is mixed with trash from the 
floor, or if the hopper is clogged with fine particles and 
dust. Fowls prefer the larger pieces and they want them 
fresh. Many do not realize that shell and grit will get 
stale if left standing exposed indefinitely, and in that 
condition are not relished by the hens. Oyster shell is 
especially important in the breeding ration as it has 
been shown that a deficiency in shell-forming material 
will result in production of much smaller eggs, as well 
as eggs with thin shells. 

As regards grit it must be admitted that little is 
known concerning its importance in the ration, or the ex- 
tent to which the fowls are able to assimilate the in- 
organic substances which it contains. We do know, 
however, that fowls normally crave grit, and in liberal 
quantity, also that they are able to assimilate inorganic 
lime. Hence it would appear wise to use some of the 
various brands of limestone grit that are on the market, 
rather than flinty materials that, so far as is known, 
have no value aside from their "grinding" properties — a 
function which probably is just as well served by the 
softer limestone. 

Use whatever is available at least expense for litter, 
so long as it answers the purpose. Most persons will find 
a mixture of planer shavings and oat or wheat straw best 
and cheapest. Spread a 4-inch layer of shavings on the 
floor and then cover with 4 to 6 inches of straw. It 
costs no more to use plenty of litter, which only need be 
changed occasionally, than to use it sparingly and be 
compelled to renew it every little while, and it is impos- 
sible to provide sufficient exercise for fowls in confine- 
ment without its liberal use. 

Green food is one of the most important parts of the 
ration of the breeding flock. Almost anything green 
may be given to advantage, but there is nothing better 
than sprouted oats if they are properly sprouted and free 
from mold. This can readily be accomplished by sprout- 
ing them in a warm room or in one of the special oat- 
sprouting cabinets that are on the market. With suffi- 
cient warmth oats will grow quickly and be ready to 
feed before mold has a chance to form. It helps also to 
wash and disinfect all sprouting trays, etc., at frequent 
intervals, for which purpose formaldehyde is especially 
good, also any good coal-tar disinfecting solution. 




FIG. 18— HEN ENTERING TRAP NEST 
For key to lettering see footnote under Fig. 17. 



FIG. 19— TRAP NEST WITH DOOR CLOSED 
For key to lettering see footnote under Fig. 11 



20 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



Pen Hatching Records and Trap Nesting 

Whether the breeder attempts systematic or pedi- 
gree breeding or not, he certainly will- want to keep a 
record of the results of his matings, and if possible 
should use trap nests and thus be able to trace the per- 
formance of individual fowls, not only through the hatch, 
but through the growth and development of the chicks. 
The advantages of being able to do this are too great to 
be overlooked where it is practicable to attend to the 
details of the work. 

The most elementary form in which it is worth 
while to keep hatching records is the pen record, where 
the egg production, hatch, and percentage of chicks raised 
are followed from day to day. This much, at least, every 
one who produces eggs for hatching should do. The rec- 
ord should be kept on a specially prepared sheet mounted 
on stiff backing (pasteboard will answer as well as any- 
thing) so that it can be carried at will from pen to incu- 
bator room or elsewhere. Blank columns should be pro- 
vided under suitable heads, following the general outlines 




PIG. 20— U. S. GOVERNMENT TRAP NEST READY FOR USE 
For convenience in handling, trap nests may be made in batteries of three 
or more, as here shown, using- light-weight lumber. Dimensions and method 
of construction are shown in Fig\ 21. 

of the sample hatching sheet shown on page 46, or the 
more elaborate one on page 47. 

In case the record is to be extended to the individual 
hen, trap nests and pedigree trays or their equivalent 
will be needed. For a practical trap nest that will give 
generally good results with hens of any size and that can 
be made quite cheaply, the one illustrated in Fig. 17, and 
shown in operation in Figs. 18 and 19, is recommended. 
The illustrations and the footnotes that accompany them 
will be sufficient to enable any one to make the nest suc- 
cessfully. Another type of nest in use at the poultry ex- 
periment farm of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, near 
Washington, is shown in Figs. 20 and 21. Pedigree egg 
trays such as are in use at the Maine Experiment Sta- 
tion are shown on page 44, and more inexpensive appli- 
ances for pedigree hatching is shown on page 45. Where 
pedigree breeding is practiced, record keeping becomes 
a rather elaborate matter, and it is useless to attempt 
this method at all unless it is done right. Almost any 
State Experiment Station will cheerfully furnish specimen 
record sheets for use in pedigree breeding, and explain 
their use. 



tion of low fertility or hatchability. There are, however, 
a number of ways in which the inexperienced breeder 
may err in the practical management of his flock, and 
which will produce unfavorable conditions in the hatch. 
It may prove helpful to call special attention to some 
of the more common mistakes of this nature. 

Overfat Hens. Hens that are heavily fed and whose 
exercise has been neglected, are apt to come to the breed- 
ing season too fat and more or less out of condition, so 
that they are not able to produce strongly fertile eggs. 
It is scarcely possible to place too much emphasis on the 
importance of taking the best of care of the breeding 
fowls prior to the breeding season, as well as after 
hatching operations begin. They should be well-fed but 
not overfed, and when confined indoors or in yards, 
special provisions must be made for their exercise. The 
importance of this may not be so great in the case of 
Leghorns and other small fowls, as these are naturally 
active, but fowls of the larger breeds are disposed to take 
life quite leisurely if supplied with an abundance of easily 
secured food. The injurious effect of 
this is found not so much in their 
getting overfat, as in their being un- 
derexercised and thus not in good 
physical condition for breeding. The 
reader is advised to turn back and 
read again what is said in this chap- 
ter in regard to providing exercise, 
no detail of which can safely be neg- 
lected in the care of large hens, 
either during the breeding season or 
in the months leading up to it. 

Exhausted Hens and Pullets. Early- 
hatched pullets that have been heavi- 
ly fed for eggs through the winter, 
and in some cases one-year-old hens 
also, will not be in condition for the 
breeding pen in the spring. Eggs for 
hatching may be secured from win- 
ter layers with fairly satisfactory re- 
sults early in the season, but only 
then. It is never advisable to depend 
on pullets or hens that have laid heavily through the 
winter, for a supply of hatching eggs throughout the sea- 
son. As far as hens are concerned, it is better to pen 
them separately and feed them a good nourishing but 
non-forcing ration and make no effort whatever to get 
eggs from them until the breeding season has arrived. 



Some Reasons for Low Fertility 

With the breeding stock selected, fed, and cared for 
in the manner just described, there should be no ques- 



Immature Pullets. The use of young pullets is be- 
lieved to be a general cause of poor hatches and weak 
chicks. It is not probable that there is any disadvantage 
in the use of well-matured pullets that have been laying 
for a short time so that the eggs are good-sized and 
normal in development. But immature pullets that are 
laying their first eggs, especially if they have been more 
or less forced in their development in order to bring 
them into laying, are extremely undesirable. 

Males Not in Good Condition. What has been said 
in regard to the management of hens, in and out of the 
breeding season, also applies to males, although these 
are not apt to become overfat at any time. They un- 
doubtedly will be benefitted by compulsory exercise, 
however. If very gallant they are more apt to be under- 
fed than overfed and should be watched to avoid any 
danger of this happening. If necessary, they may have 
a special supply of grain, provided in a cup or small hop- 
per hung high enough to be out of the reach of the hens. 



MANAGEMENT OE BREEDING STOCK 



21 



Immature Cockerels. The chief objection to the use 
of cockerels, assuming that they are well developed, is 
that they are not able to stand service in the breeding 
pen for long periods, especially when mated to too many 
females as is almost habitually done. If they must be 
used singly in large flocks it is a good plan to provide 
some extra ones so that they can be placed in service 
alternately, with rest periods between. A better and 
more practical plan, where it is possible to practice it, 
is simply to keep the number of females down to a point 
where the males will not be in danger of being over- 
worked and thus can be continued in regular service 
throughout the season. Alternating males is a make- 
shift practice at best. It is much better that the pen, 
when once mated, be continued unchanged to the close 
of the season, unless it is found desirable to make a per- 
manent change. 

Unsuitable Rations. The rations that the breeders 
should have are fully outlined in this chapter, and there is 
no poorer economy than to neglect the provision of what 
is needed in order to save a few cents on the cost of 
the ration, if this done at the expense of the nourishment 
of the breeding stock and the embryo. There is no nec- 
essity for making the feeding a complicated mathematical 
or chemical problem, but wholesome food 
in reasonable variety and properly sup- 
plied, neither too much nor too little, is 
imperative. 

Too Long Breeding Season. It fre- 
quently happens that a breeding pen that 
has given good results early in the year fails 
to hold up throughout the breeding season, 
and fertility and vitality in the chicks drop 
to a low point. There is no practical way 
of keeping up the vigor of fowls that are V 
laying heavily for long periods, and this 
must be taken into account in all plans. 
Winter-laying pullets may be used in the 
breeding pen early in the season, but for 
long periods one and two-year-old hens 
are better. They should be fed so as to 
keep the egg yield at a reasonable percent- 
age, but avoid all tendency to forcing >^ 
methods. Egg production may be con- 
trolled to some extent by making changes 
in the rations as suggested in this chapter, 
such as by increasing or decreasing the 
percentage of meat scrap, or by regulating 
the amount of mash. If the fowls are dis- 
posed to lay too heavily they may be 
checked by reducing the proportion of dry 
mash consumed, doing so by increasing the 
proportion of bran in the mixture. If the 
yield falls off too greatly it can be brought 
back by reducing the bran and increasing 
the meat scrap and, if necessary, by feed- 
ing a moist mash daily. 

Too Little Animal Food. Experiments 
have shown that a lack of animal food will seriously af- 
fect the hatchability of eggs, and this part of the ration 
should always receive attention. Commercial meat scrap 
is available almost everywhere and should invariably be 
supplied to breeding fowls in confinement, unless freshi 
meat, butcher's scraps or green cut bone is used instead. 
Meat is apt to stimulate the egg organs to too heavy pro- 
duction, however, and must not be fed too freely. The 
proportion cannot be exactly stated, as much depends 
on the mash fed, and on other conditions, and must 
be governed to some extent by the performance of the 
hens. So long as they are not laying too heavily it is 
safe to assume that the amount is not excessive, if it 
conforms in a general way to the percentages suggested 
in this chapter. 

Too Much Green Food. Where sprouted oats are fed 
liberally, also where efforts are made to reduce the cost 
of the ration by feeding an abundance of green food, 
there is danger that the eggs will be watery and far from 
normal in composition. Such eggs cannot be expected 
to give good results in the incubator. Green food is im- 



portant as a means of keeping the fowls in good physical 
condition, but there is danger in feeding it too heavily. 

Poor Sanitary Conditions. It is assumed that good 
sanitary conditions will be maintained in the breeding 
pens at all times. Cleanliness, from a poultry-keeping 
viewpoint, does not mean the same thing that it sug- 
gests to the tidy housekeeper, but it certainly should mean 
freedom from dampness, foul odors, and filthy litter. The 
condition of the litter is especially important because of 
the feeding method recommended, which requires the 
fowls to keep digging in it pretty much all day long to 
secure their grain feed. It should take no argument to 
show the importance of having reasonably clean litter, 
for this purpose — litter that is dry and free from drop- 
pings and mustiness. With a dry floor and a well-ven- 
tilated house, a thick coat of litter will last for some 
time, especially where the fowls are no more crowded 
than is generally recommended for breeding pens. If 
the house is kept dry by adequate ventilation, the litter 
renewed frequently enough to keep it bright and fresh, 
and the droppings boards cleaned often enough to keep 
the house free from offensive odor, the house can be 
considered clean and sanitary. Less than this should not 
be tolerated. A filthy house will certainly react on the 
health and productivity of the fowls. 




Washington, 



FIG. 2 J— OUTLINE DRAWING OF U. S. GOVERNMENT TRAP NEST 

This drawing shows method of construction and dimensions of trap 
nest in use at the Governmental Poultry Experimental Farm near 
D. C. For complete nest see Fig. 20. 



Eggs Chilled or Overheated. Eggs must be pro- 
tected from extreme temperatures while being held for 
Hatching. Low temperatures that will chill them, or high 
temperatures that will start germ development are alike 
injurious. Under ordinary conditions a reasonably dry 
cellar is a good place for the eggs, and if there is no 
damp'ness they may safely be laid in baskets or trays, 
piled one on top of the other, and covered with a cloth 
to prevent evaporation. If the cellar is damp or the tem- 
perature is liable to fall much below 50 degrees it will be 
better to keep the eggs elsewhere. A closet in the kitchen 
or living room frequently offers an excellent place for 
them, but in this case it is necessary to guard against 
high temperatures during the day and low temperatures 
at night. Usually the most practical and convenient way 
to store eggs for hatching is to place them in one dozen 
cartons, or in regular shipping cases when large numbers 
are to be accumulated. These packages provide ideal con- 
ditions, as the eggs are protected from sudden changes in 
temperature, and from evaporation, also from excess 
moisture, and are easily turned if this is considered nec- 
essary. 



CHAPTER III 



The Hen's Egg and How It Is Formed 

Description of the Egg Organs of the Hen — How Eggs Are Developed — Composition of the Egg and How This Ma;v 
Be Affected by Feeding— How Size and Shape of Eggs Are Determined— Securing Large, Uni- 
formly Shaped Eggs for Hatching — Defective Eggs and How Prevented. 



HGOOD degree of success in artificial incubation 
may be achieved with only the most limited 
knowledge regarding the formation of the egg, 
its composition, and the growth and development 
of the chick embryo — that much is readily conceded. The 
earnest and ambitious poultry keeper, however, who 
wishes to be well informed generally on matters that 
directly relate to his work, will want to know at least the 
details of this complicated but highly interesting subject. 
There is no question about the fact that he will find all 
such information helpful to him in practical everyday 
work with breeding stock and in hatching operations. 
This information we have 
attempted to give in this 
and the following chapters, 
though it evidently is im- 
possible to do little more 
in the space available, than 
to outline the subject and to 
furnish such details as will 
enable those who are inter- 
ested, to follow intelligently 
the development of the chick 
embryo. It also is impossi- 
ble to present such a sub- 
ject in words made familiar 
by everyday use, though so 
far as possible this has been 
done. 

Considering the egg sim- 
ply as the reproductive body 
of fowls, it may be described 
as consisting of a germ, a 
relatively large amount of 

food stored up for the nourishment of the developing 
embryo, and protective coverings. The egg has its mic- 
roscopic beginning in the ovary of the female fowl, 
which organ, bearing a slight general resemblance to a 
bunch of grapes (see Fig. 24) is located close to the 
backbone and in front of the kidneys. The female nor- 
mally develops only one ovary — the left one — the right 
ovary becoming atrophied at an early stage in the de- 
velopment of the embryonic chick. 

In mature laying pullets the ovary contains ova in all 
stages of development, from full-grown yolks down to 
minute bodies (oocytes) so small that they cannot be 
detected without the use of a microscope. The number 
of these is quite large, as many as 3,600 having been 
counted in a single ovary, only those being considered 
that were visible to the naked eye (see Fig. 23). How 
many more might be revealed by the use of the micro- 
scope we do not know. Since few hens ever reach a total 
production of 1,000 eggs, it is clear that the number that 
any individual may produce is determined by physical 
limitations, the exhaustion of the supply of ova being a 
practical impossibility. 

Th,» Oviduct 
The oviduct (see Figs. 24 and 27) is a whitish tube, 
located in the abdomen and attached by means of tough 

22 




FIG. 22— WELL-FORMED, STANDARD-SIZED EGGS 



membraneous tissue to the upper part of the body wall. 
In the growing pullet or non-laying hen it is compara- 
tively small, but as the fowl comes into laying condition 
it increases in size until it reaches a length of fully two 
feet, with glandular walls of varying thickness and 
strongly marked with blood vessels. It may be divided 
into the following parts or sections: The funnel, de- 
signed to receive the yolk as it leaves the ruptured yolk 
sac; the albumen-secreting portion; the isthmus which 
secretes the shell membrane; the uterus where the hard 
shell is secreted; the vagina where the coloring matter of 
the shell and the outer mucilaginous coating are secreted. 

Formation of the Egg 

The ova or yolks develop 
in groups, about fourteen 
days being sufficient for the 
development of a full-sized 
yolk from the minute ovum. 
The yellow part of the yolk 
consists of round cells filled 
with fat, which are deposited 
daily in successive layers, 
each layer being separated 
from the rest by an extreme- 
ly thin layer of white yolk. 
These layers are so distinct 
in formation that the yolk 
of a fresh hard-boiled egg 
can be peeled off in layers, 
like an onion, if carefully 
done. The yolk is enclosed 
in a membraneous yolk sac, 
through which it receives 
from the blood the materials of which it is composed. 
When the yolk reaches its full development, the sac is 
ruptured and the yolk, enclosed in an extremely thin en- 
velope known as the vitelline membrane (an essential part 
of the yolk structure) enters the upper end of the ovi- 
duct. The yolk is not a solid mass, but enclosed in it is 
a central cavity filled with white yolk and connected with 
the germinal disk on the upper surface of the yolk by a 
small canal or tube which also is filled with white yolk. 
At the time the yolk escapes from the yolk sac, the 
upper end or mouth of the oviduct opens and more or 
less envelops it, thus insuring its entrance into the ovi- 
duct instead of into the body cavity, which latter fre- 
quently happens, however, when the funnel of the ovi- 
duct does not function properly. As soon as the yolk 
enters the oviduct, the glands begin pouring out their 
secretions of albumen or "white" and as the yolk is 
gradually pushed along, turning round and r.ound in a 
spiral manner under the pressure of the muscular walls 
of the oviduct, it accumulates its share of albumen and, 
further along, the membranes and the hard shell. 

"In the normal egg of the hen there are certainly 
three and possibly four different albumen layers which 
can easily be distinguished on the basis of physical con- 
sistency. These are: (a) the chalaziferous layer. This 




THE HEN'S EGG AND HOW IT IS FORMED 



23 



is a thin layer of dense albuminous 
material, which lies immediately out- 
side the true yolk membrane. It is 
continuous at the poles of the yolk 
with the chalazae, and is undoubtedly 
formed in connection with those 
structures. It is so thin a layer that 
it might well be, and often has been 
taken for the yolk membrane, (b) 
The inner layer of fluid (thin) albu- 
men. This layer is extremely thin 
and there is some doubt as to its ex- 
istence as a separate layer, (c) The 
dense albumen. This is the layer 
which makes up the bulk of the 
'"white" of the egg. It is composed of 
a mass of dense, closely interlaced 
albumen fibres with some thin albu- 
men between the meshes of the fib- 
rous network. The dense albumen, as 
a whole, will not flow readily but 
holds itself together in a flattened 

mass if poured out upon a plate, (d) The outer layer of 
fluid albumen. This is the principal layer of thin albu- 
men, which makes up the fluid part of the "white" ob- 
served when an egg is broken. 

''Many autopsy records agree in showing that the 
egg does not receive the outer layer of thin fluid albumen 
(layer d) during its sojourn in the so-called albumen se- 
creting portion of the oviduct. A detailed and careful 
study of the weights of the several parts of the egg 
(yolk, albumen, shell membranes) in eggs taken from 
different levels of the oviduct, leads to the following re- 
sults. When the egg leaves the albumen portion of the 
oviduct it weighs roughly only about half as much as 
it does when laid. Nearly all of this difference is in the 
albumen. Thus these weighings fully confirm the con- 
clusion reached from different examinations of the eggs, 
as already described. The evidence shows that the egg 
gets all of its thin albumen (layer d), which constitutes 









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jt j J3Iu* , '"^SL 


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FIG. 23— PORTION OF OVARY OF HEN 
This illustration made from a photograph supplied by Missouri State Poul- 
try Experiment Station shows about three-fourths of the ovary of a hen, and 
gives some idea (though but a faint one) of the great numbers of ova to be 
found in the ovary of any normal hen, there being- many hundreds, possibly 
thousands more than the hens will ever lay. 



FIG. 24— OVARY AND OVIDUCT OF LAYING HEN 

1, ovary with yolks (ova) in different stages of development — one just ready 

to pass into mouth of oviduct. 2, section of oviduct where the albumen is 

secreted. 3, the uterus or shell gland, containing full-sized egg. Compare 

this illustration with Fig. 27. Courtesy of Mo. State Poultry Experiment Station. 

nearly 60 per cent by weight of the total albumen, only 
after it has left the supposedly only albumen-secreting 
portion of the oviduct, and the shell is in process of for- 
mation. 

"The weighings show that in general the farther 
down the oviduct the egg proceeds the more albumen it 
gets. Very nearly one-half the total weight of albumen 
of the completed egg is added in the uterus, an organ 
hitherto supposed to be entirely devoted to shell forma- 
tion. Clearly much more albumen is added to the egg 
in the uterus than in the isthmus. This, of course, does 
not necessarily mean any more rapid rate of secretion in 
the uterus, because of the time element involved. The 
egg stays much longer in the uterus than in the isthmus."* 
The chalazae, to which reference has been made, 
are attached on opposite sides of the yolk, facing the two 
ends of the egg, and extend out into the albumen. Their 
purpose is to hold the yolk in its proper position, allow- 
ing it to turn around freely the 
short way of the egg, but preventing 
its turning over the long way of the 
egg. This in connection with the 
peculiar structure of the yolk, which 
makes the sides carrying the germi- 
nal disk lighter than the other half, 
keeps the yolk always on the upper 
side of the egg and near the center, 
viewing it from end to €nd, and also 
keeps the germ side of the yolk up- 
permost and close up to the source 
of heat regardless of the position in 
which the egg is placed. 

The covering of the egg consists of 
two membranes, each a network of 
fibers, and a hard outer shell. The 
separation of the inner and outer 
membranes at the large end forms 
the air cell with which all incubator 
operators are familiar. The outer 
shell is almost pure carbonate of 
lime and consists of the gelatinous 
coating, which forms the "bloom" of 
the egg, an outer porous layer, a mid- 
dle and denser portion, and an inner 



♦Extract from Miine 
Station Bulletin No. 216. 



Experiment 



24 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



or crystalline portion. The shell is quite porous and ad- 
mits air readily, and bacteria also when kept under un- 
favorable conditions. The outer gelatinous coating seems 
to provide some additional protection for the egg, possi- 
bly retarding evaporation. If this coating is removed, as 
when the shells are washed on account of being badly 
soiled, the eggs seldom hatch as well as when unwashed. 
The following statement in regard to the develop- 
ment of the different parts of the egg and the length of 




FIG. 25— STRUCTURE OF THE EGG. 
S, shell; M, outer shell membrane; M-l, inner 
shell membrane; A, air cell; C, outer layer of 
albumen; W, middle layer of albumen; D, inner or 
chalaziferous layer of albumen; CH, chalazae; V, 
vitelline membrane; WY, thin layers of white yolk 
— also central cavity and tube filled with white 
yolk; YY, layers of yellow yolk; BL, blastoderm or 
germinal disk. 

time occupied in the process, is taken from Bulletin 216 
of the Maine Experiment Station: 

1. After entering the infundibulum the yolk re- 
mains in the so-called albumen portion of the oviduct 
about three hours and in this time acquires only about 
40 to SO per cent by weight of its total albumen, and not 
all of it as has hitherto been supposed. 

2. During its sojourn in the infundibular and albu- 
men portions of the duct the egg acquires its chalazae and 
chalaziferous layer, and the "thick" albumen layer. 

3. Upon entering the isthmus, in passing through 
which portion of the duct something under an hour's 
time is occupied instead of three hours as has been pre- 
viously maintained, the egg receives its shell membrane 
by a process of discrete deposition. 

4. At the same time, and also during the sojourn of 
the egg in the uterus, it receives its outer layer of fluid 
or "thin" albumen, which is by weight SO to 60 per cent 
of the total albumen. 

5. This "thin" albumen is taken in as a dilute fluid 
by osmosis through the shell membranes already formed. 
The fluid albumen added in this way diffuses into the 
dense albumen already present, dissolve some of the 



latter and so brings about its dilution in some degree. At 
the same time the fluid albumen is made more dense in 
this process of diffusion, and comes to have the consist- 
ency of the thin albumen layer of the normal fresh laid 
egg. The fluid albumen taken into the egg by osmosis is 
a definite secretion of glands of the isthmus and uterus. 

6. The addition of albumen to the egg is completed) 
only after it has been in the uterus from S to 7 hours. 

7. Before the acquisition of albumen by the egg isi 
completed, a fairly considerable amount of shell sub- 
stance has been deposited on the shell membrane. 

8. For the completion of the shell and the laying of 
the egg from 12 to 16, or exceptionally even more, hours 
are required." 

Composition of the Hen's Egg 

The composition of eggs and the relative proportions 
of the different substances represented in them vary 
somewhat in different analyses, but the following aver- 
ages of a number of tests made at the Kansas Experi- 
ment Station probably quite closely approximate the gen- 
eral average: 

Weight of egg .' 1.88 c 

Percentage of white 57.01 

Percentage of yolk 32.75 

Percentage- of shell 9.99 

Percentage of protein in white 12.34 

Percentage of water in white 87.66 

Percentage of protein in yolk 17.58 

Percentage of ether extract (fat) 32.23 

Percentage of water in yolk 48.63 

Percentage of ash in yolk 1.55 

Percentage of protein in total egg 12.83 

Both yolk and albumen are highly complex com- 
pounds. While many of the substances contained in 
them are present only in the most limited porportions 
they are not necessarily unimportant to embryonic de- 
velopment on that account. The composition of the yolk 
of the average egg approximates the following per- 
centages: 

Analysis of Yolk. 

Water 49.32 per cent. 

Solids 50.66 per cent. 

Fats 21.57 per cent. 

Vitellin and other albumens 15.79 per cent. 

Lecithins 9.58 per cent. 

Cholesterin 1.2 per cent. 

Cerebrin 30 per cent. 

Mineral Salts 3.33 per cent. 

Coloring matter j 55 per cent 

Glucose ) 

The mineral salts in the yolk contain sodium, potas- 
sium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphoric acid, chlorine 
and silicic acid. The phosphoric acid and calcium form 
much the greater proportion of the total. 

Analysis of Albumen. 

Water 83.34 per cent 

Solids 16.66 per cent 

Albumens 11.89 per cent 

Glucose 30 per cent 

Extractives 58 per cent 

Fats and soap Traces 

Mineral salts 48 per cent 

Lecithins and cholesterin Traces 

The mineral salts in the albumen contain sodium, 
potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, chlorine, phosphorus 



I 








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ONE DAY OLD 


ONE WEEK OLD 


TWO WEEK5 OLD 


1 








1 



FIG. 26— HOW AGE AFFECTS CONSISTENCY OF YOLK AND ALBUMEN 
Eggs rapidly lose consistency or firmness with age. Note the firmness of yolk and albumen in the 
egg one day old as shown by the way of yolk stands up and the albumen holds together. In the 
egg one week old both have flattened out noticeably, and in the egg two weeks old the albumen is quite 
watery and the yolk flat, thin, and easily broken. 



THE HEN'S EGG AND HOW IT IS FORMED 



25 



acid, carbonic acid, sulphuric acid, silicic acid and fluorine. 
Of these, sodium, potassium, and chlorine form the great- 
er part of the total. 

Variations in Composition of Eggs 

Comparatively little information is available, show- 
ing the extent to which the composition of the egg may 
be affected by the rations fed. It is common knowledge 
that the color is affected by the food supplied, and there 
are readily observed differences in the consistency of yolk 
and albumen, which accompany extreme rations such as 
those composed mainly of soft food, or which contain 
large proportions of milk, cabbage, or green food in any 
form, also kitchen scraps. Eggs produced by hens that 
have a reasonable proportion of animal food in the ration 
are noticeably different from eggs produced on a meat- 
less ration, and eggs produced by well-fed hens are per- 
ceptibly larger than from underfed fowls, while the 
flavor is noticeably affected by the character of the food 
provided. The poultry keeper who produces eggs for 
hntching will therefore aim to supply a nourishing and 
well-balanced ration, and in liberal proportions, so that 
the eggs laid will be of full size and normal in their com- 
position. 

It is doubtful, however, whether there is any neces- 
sity for or advantage in trying to provide a ration that 
will closely follow the chemical composition of the egg, 
as is often recommended. If there is any advantage in 
so doing, certainly the proportions have not been suffi- 
ciently investigated to afford any reliable information as 
to the amounts required. On the whole, there are good 
practical reasons for thinking that better results will be 
secured by the feeder who aims simply to supply a nor- 
mal ration rather than by one who permits himself to 
get hopelessly tangled up in the complexities of egg and 
food analyses. As a matter of fact, such investigations 
as have been made indicate that the great majority of the 
elements which enter into the composition of the egg 
are found largely in excess of the fowl's requirements in 
any good, practical ration such as poultry feeders gen- 
erally use. 

Experiments made at Cornell University, for exam- 
ple, indicate that the relative proportions of fat and pro- 
tein in the egg vary but little, regardless of the ration 
fed; that there seems to be no relation between the pro- 
tein and fat content of the egg and its hatching power 
or the vitality of the chick; that the phosphorus content 
of the egg is only slightly modified by the proportions in 
which this element is present in the ration, and this varia- 
tion seems to have no bearing on the strength or vitality 
of the chick; and that the feeding of inorganic phosphorus 
does not influence the proportion of phosphorus in the 
egg. If these things are true in regard to phosphorus, 
which is generally believed to be the element in which 
the average ration is most likely to be deficient, there can 
be little reason for anxiety about the other mineral con- 
stituents, so long as the ration is well balanced and pro- 
vides some variety. 

The composition of the egg aside from consistency 
and flavor, appears to vary only in a slight degree as a 
result of changes in the ration. A conspicuous deficiency 
in any essential ingredient is much more apt to cause a 
falling off in egg yield than in the production of eggs 
showing a noticeable reduction in any of their normal 
constituents. For example, a marked deficiency of lime 
in the ration does not necessarily result in soft shells, 
but usually is followed by reduced productiveness and 
smaller-sized eggs. 



How the Egg Gets Its Oval Shape 

As regards the shaping of the egg, the following ex- 
tract from Bulletin 228 of the Maine Experiment Station 
gives practically all that is known on this subject: 

"The shape of the egg is almost certainly due to the 
interaction of the two layers of muscle fibers in the ovi- 
duct walls. The inner layer of fibers is circular, that is, 
they pass around the duct. The outer layer is longitudi- 
nal and somewhat spiral and extends into both the dorsal 
and ventral ligaments. Further work on the physiology 
of these muscles is necessary to determine the exact way 
in which they act. From their position and from ob- 
served activities of the duct it seems that the contrac- 




FIG. 27— PHOTOGRAPH OF HEN'S OVIDUCT 
Oviduct slit open and flattened out, showing the inside 
surface. Oviduct was cut in two at "B" in order to get 
it on the photographic plate. A is the funnel shaped 
mouth; B, B, B, the albumen-secreting section. The 
albumen portion stops and the isthmus begins at X. 

C, the isthmus where the shell membranes are secreted; 

D, the uterus or shell gland; E, the vagina. Photo from 
Maine Experiment Station. 



tion of the circular fibers contract the duct and move 
the egg forward. The contraction of the longitudinal 
fibers, which have a somewhat spiral course, expand the 
duct, diminishing the resistance to the passage and also 
gives the egg a spiral motion. If the resistance is slight, 
i. e., if the contractions are so timed that the duct ahead 
of the egg is expanded at the time of the contraction of 
the circular fibers behind, the egg will be long, narrow 
and pointed. On the other hand, if the resistance is 
great the egg will be short and broad. 

"The individuality of the eggs of a bird in respect 



26 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




to shape must be 
due to an individ- 
uality in the co- 
ordination of these 
two sets of mus- 
cle fibers and sim- 
ilarly the variation 
must be due to 
a variation under 
different condi- 
tions in the de- 
gree of coordina- 
tion." 

Size and Shape of 
Eggs 

Since conspicu- 
ous variations from 



ideal 



shape 



are apt to be due 
to abnormal con- 



FIG. 28 — DEFORMED EGGS 
"Wind eggs" (1) usually contain 

albumen but no yolk. Crooked eggs ditions in the ovi- 

(2) usually result from an inflamed . , -, , 

condition of the oviduct. Ridged or ir- duct, it should De 

regularly shaped eggs (3) and double- _i___ lU^f h p n <; 

yolked eggs (4) also are due to inflam- clear lnal " e b 

mation in the oviduct or to weakness that regularly lay 

in the muscles of that organ, and most , , ■ , 

commonly are produced by overfat hens, such eggs snoula 

not be used for 
the production of hatching eggs. Aside from the fact 
that such irregularities may be inherited, there is the 
more immediate disadvantage due to low fertility, which 
usually is a characteristic of odd-shaped eggs. The shape 
of the egg bears no relation to the sex of the chick 
hatched from it. 

The eggs of individual hens vary to some extent in 
size, shape, and color, though conforming more or less 
closely to certain general breed characteristics. A good 
degree of uniformity in these respects can be secured in 
carefully bred strains in any breed. The eggs of any 
given individual will be found to resemble each other 
closely in shape and exterior appearance, so that it is 
possible for the careful observer to identify the hen that 
laid the egg by its appearance alone, though in a sea- 
son's production some variation in size, also in color and 
shape, will be noted. "Egg weight and albumen are about 
equally variable. They are decidedly less variable than 
shell weight and yolk weight, and much more variable 
than either length or breadth."* 



*Maine Station Bulletin No. 228. 




p-iG, 29— SELECT NORMAL EGGS FOR THE INCUBATOR 
(1) This egg is just about perfect in Its proportions. 
The length is practically 1V 2 times the diameter, and it 
weighs two and one-sixth ounces. (2) Extra long eggs are 
not likely to show a high degree of fertility and are much 
more apt to have defective shells. (3) Eggs of this type 
usually are undersized and should be avoided. 



The following list arranges the egg characters in the 
order of their variability; egg weight; yolk weight; albu- 
men weight; shell weight; length; breadth. Eggs during 
the breeding season have larger yolks and a correspond- 
ingly smaller percentage of albumen than eggs at other 
seasons. 

In a general way the size of eggs is greater in the 
middle of the clutch than at the beginning or the end, 
and in a period of long-continued laying the eggs tend 
to average smaller. However, pullets habitually lay 
smaller eggs in the first clutch than in successive ones 
and their eggs are not apt to reach maximum size until 
the second year. 

The poultry grower is interested in the variations in 
size, shape, and composition of eggs for very practical 
reasons. Regardless of whether eggs are sold by weight 
or not, size has an important market value. Noticeably 
small eggs are subject to discount in almost any dis- 
ci iminating market, while large size is almost imperative 
in jecuring premium prices. In incubation it is conceded 
that the largest and best chicks come from large eggs. 
Color of shell is definitely inherited within the breed. 
That is, pullets hatched from white-shelled eggs will al- 
ways lay white-shelled eggs if they are purebred, and hens 
belonging to 
breeds that 1 a y 
eggs with brown 
shells will never 
lay white - shelled 
eggs, though in 
some breeds the 
shade of brown in 
the eggs may vary 
widely except in 
strains that have 
been carefully 
bred for uniform- 
ity in color. Some 
breeds are much 
more apt to show 
uniformity of shell 
color than others, 
but a good degree 




FIG. 30- 



-DEFORMED EGG WITH 
SOFT SHELL 



of iinifnrmitv can ^SgS Wltn sort 

oi uniformity can abnormal shapes, 



Eggs with soft shells, in various 
bnormal shapes, are more or less 
be secured in any common, especially in the spring when 
. the fowls are laying heavily and when 

breed or variety they often are suffering from long 
l v nprcistpnt «p winter confinement. More exercise and 
uy pciaisicui. sc- a j ess forcing ration are the remedy. 

lection. That the 

same rule will apply equally to shape and size is prob- 
able, but not so clearly established. 

Defective Eggs and How Caused 

There are a number of defects that may occur in 
eggs, some of them unavoidable, and some the result of 
poor methods of feeding or care. The appearance of 
serious defects that are known to be the result of im- 
proper conditions should be a sufficient warning imme- 
diately to change such conditions, while others that are 
due to constitutional causes demand the removal of the 
defective fowls. The following defects may be noticed 
in almost any flock during the heavy laying season, and 
while their occurrence now and then is not a serious 
matter, an appreciable number means improper condi- 
tions somewhere along the line, which must be corrected 
if good hatching eggs are to be produced: 

Small Eggs. Extremely small eggs, sometimes called 
"wind eggs," are generally supposed to be the last of the 
clutch, or the last eggs laid by a hen before becoming 



THE HEN'S EGG AND HOW IT IS FORMED 



27 



broody. In some cases the wind egg is believed to re- 
sult from the entrance of the yolk into the oviduct and 
its later expulsion into the body cavity where it is reab- 
sorbed. The secretion of the albumen having been be- 
gun however, the entire process is gone through with, 
resulting in the formation of a diminutive egg with a 
regular shell, containing varying amounts of albumen 
but no yolk. Eggs normal in shell, albumen, and yolk, 
but quite small in size, may simply be a pullet's first 
eggs or they may result from rations conspicuously deli- 
cfent in something essential to egg production. 

Overlarge Eggs. Eggs that are conspicuously over- 
size are generally, but not always, 
double-yolked eggs, produced by two 
yolks escaping into the oviduct at the 
same time, or to a reversal of the 
muscular action of the oviduct which 
may result in stopping a yolk at any 
point in the oviduct, even after it has 
accumulated most of its albumen, or 
after a complete shell has been 
formed, and returning it to the upper 
part of the oviduct. In the course 
of this backward movement it meets 
the following yolk and both then pro- 
ceed through the oviduct and are 
enclosed in one shell. Double-yolked 
eggs indicate irregular functioning of 
the oviduct and are commonly pro- 
duced by hens that are overfat, es- 
pecially if kept in comparative idle- 
ness. It is probable that the trouble 
is not due directly to the hens being 
overfat, but to a general weakening 
of the muscles of the oviduct and of 
the entire abdominal region, as a re- 
sult of inactivity. At any rate, the 
remedy lies in providing more exer- 
cise for the fowls, and a less forcing 
ration. As a matter of fact, one of 
the first and most important steps to 
be taken in the prevention of defec- 
tive eggs of almost any kind is to 
see to it that the hens have plenty of 
exercise. Normal fowls are highly 
active, and scratching for their food 
is the natural way to get both food 
and exercise. This constant scratch- 
ing tends to keep the abdominal mus- 
cles strong and active, and this firm- 
ness of muscle extends to and is an 
important feature in the health and 
activity of the oviduct. 

Soft Shells. These may be due to 
a lack of lime or to improper func- 
tioning of the egg organs, resulting 
from lack of exercise. In some in- 
stances the presence of soft-shelled 
eggs is due to forced feeding in 
which case the shell glands do not 
appear to be able to secrete material 
as fast as is required. This may hap- 
pen even when there is no lack of 
lime in the ration. In some instances 
the cause of soft shells will be found 
in the inability of the hen to take 
up lime from the material supplied, 
or simply to failure to eat enough 
of it. 

Watery Eggs. Eggs that are watery when fresh are 
generally so as the result of defective rations. Fowls 
that are heavily fed on green stuff, soft food, or kitchen 
scraps, are apt to lay such eggs, and while they may pass 
for table use, they are not desirable for hatching. More 
grain in the ration will remedy this. 

Pale Color. The color of the yolk is determined by 
the presence of a certain coloring matter, which is gen- 
erally distributed, but is present in especially liberal pro- 
portions in yellow corn, clover, alfalfa, grass, etc. There 
are no tests showing that well-colored yolks will hatch 
any better than pale-colored ones, but it certainly is wise 
to try to keep the eggs as nearly normal in all respects 
as possible. For that reason pale yolks should be cor- 
rected by providing some of the above-mentioned foods 
to supply color. 



Rough Shells. Rough shells may be due to lack of 
a suitable supply of lime, but more commonly to an in- 
flamed condition of the portion of the oviduct where the 
shell material is secreted. Hens that regularly lay rough- 
shelled eggs should be removed from the breeding flock. 
An appreciable number of such indicates something rad- 
ically wrong with the ration or the condition under which 
the fowls are kept. 

Crooked or Ridged Shells. Yarious irregularities in 
the shape of egg shells will be met with from time to 
time, and all such should be discarded. It is true that 
crooked or ridged eggs sometimes hatch well, but the 



□ODD 

12 3 4 

DDDD 
□DDD 



FIG. 31— RATE OF EVAPORATION OF HEN'S EGG 
1 to 9. Eggs that have been held for one day, one week, two weeks, three 
weeks, four weeks, five weeks, six weeks, seven weeks, and eight weeks, re- 
spectively. The eggs were kept at a living-room temperature of about 70 de- 
grees Fahrenheit, in an open pasteboard carton. There was no breeze blowing 
over the eggs, and each egg- illustrated is typical of several eggs that were ex- 
amined at each stage; therefore this series represents the normal results of 
such holding. 

10 to 12. Eggs held for twelve weeks, one week, and one-half week re- 
spectively at a temperature of 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Even at twelve weeks 
of age (10), the egg is less evaporated than at four weeks of age when held at 
a living-room temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit (5). Eggs may be held for 
two weeks at 40 degrees Fahrenheit without much change. Reproduced from 
Bulletin 353, Cornell University. 



chances are against their doing so, and unless from val- 
uable stock it is hardly worth while to waste incubator 
space on them. They are usually caused by an inflam- 
matory condition in the oviduct, though some hens lay 
crooked eggs regularly, apparently as the result of some 
slight organic malformation that does no harm and does 
not develop into anything serious. 

Transparent Spots in Shells. The exact cause of 
transparent spots in eggs is not fully understood. It 
may be characteristic of an individual hen or possibly 
may occur in hens that generally lay normal eggs. If 
these eggs can be distinguished either by superficial ex- 
amination or through the egg tester they should be dis- 
carded. Some of them may hatch but the percentage 
generally will be low. 



CHAPTER IV 



The Chick Embryo and Its Development 

Appearance of Fertile and Infertile Eggs— Stage of Development of Germ When Egg ia Laid— How It Is Kept Alive 

But Dormant Before Incubation Begins — What Happens During Incubation— Position in Which 

to Keep Eggs and Length of Time They May Be Held. 



c 



O GET a clear idea of the normal position of the 
yolk and the germinal disk which forms the 
starting point of the chick embryo, the shell of 
a fresh egg may be carefully broken away as 
shown in Fig. 32, when the yolk will be seen floating well 
up in the albumen, with a thin layer of that substance be- 
tween the yolk and inner surface of the shell membrane. 
When this insulating layer disappears through the thin- 
ning of the albumen as a result of age, or because the 
egg has stood too long in one position, the yolk will 
come in contact with the inner surface of the shell mem- 
brane and will adhere to it. The chalazae will be seen 
opposite each end of the egg, suspended well below the 
center, sometimes so low as to be almost under the yolk. 
While the chalazae normally are attached firmly to op- 
posite sides of the yolk, they are subject to rather wide 
variations in their development, and one or both will 
sometimes be found apparently floating in the albumen 
and with no visible attachment to the yolk. Such eggs 
are not likely to hatch well. On the upper side of the 
yolk will be seen the germinal disk — a small, round, 
light-colored spot not much over an eighth of an inch in 
diameter. This disk is always uppermost, due to a slight 
difference in the weight of the two sides of the yolk 
caused by the central cavity and the connecting canal, 
the outer opening of which is always immediately under 
the germinal disk (see Fig. 25). The disk, properly called 
the blastoderm, is close up under the outer envelope of 
the yolk, known as the vitelline membrane. 

When the yolk leaves the ovary, after developing to 
full size, the germinal disk consists of a small circular 
spot enclosed in a whitish ring and with the interior pre- 
senting a whitish or frothy appearance. The union be- 
tween the female and male germ (the spermatazoon) 
takes place in the upper end of the oviduct, immediately 
after the yolk enters it from the ovary. The spermatazoa 
traverse the entire length of the oviduct after copulation, 
and at the upper end or mouth of the oviduct they re- 
main active for some days, suspended in fluid, and await- 
ing an opportunity to effect a union with a female germ. 
There is no possibility of such a union until the yolk 
has entered the upper end of the oviduct, but as the 
spermatazoa may retain their activity for as long as 
three weeks in this environment, a single service may 
result in fertilizing a number of germs, as the successive 
yolks develop and escape into the oviduct. Experimental 
tests have shown that hens may continue to lay fertile 
eggs for weeks after the male has been removed from 
the flock, though as a rule, fertility is low after six to 
eight days, and is rare after the fifteenth day. 

Appearance of Fertile and Infertile Eggs 

It usually is an easy matter to distinguish fertile 
from infertile eggs when the shells are broken. In the 
latter the germinal disk will be more or less uniformily 
opaque, or if closely examined will have a sort of frothy 
appearance. In the fertile egg the center is also opaque 
but much smaller than in the infertile egg and this cen- 
ter is surrounded by a transparent ring and this in turn 



is enclosed by a whitish one, giving a concentric ringing 
that is an unmistakable indication of a fertilized germ. 
This concentric ringing is more clearly defined in some 
eggs than in others, but is nearly always sufficiently de- 
veloped to make it possible to distinguish fertility if it 
exists. It is not possible to distinguish between fertile 
and infertile eggs by candling, until the egg has been ex- 
posed to incubating temperature for at least twenty-four 
hours, and generally forty-eight hours are required, even 
with white-shelled eggs. 

From the time the yolk enters the upper end of the 
oviduct and is fertilized until the egg is completely 
formed and laid, fully 24 hours must elapse, and under 
some conditions the egg may then be carried for a num- 
ber of hours or even for a day or more before it is 
dropped. Since the bodily temperature of the hen is 
around 106 degrees it is clear that the fertilized germ 
will be subjected to an incubating temperature for that 
time. During this period cell division or growth actually 
begins and the germ, therefore,' has already reached a 
certain stage of development when the egg is laid. The 
exact degiee of development attained will depend upon 
the length of time the egg is retained in the fowl's body 
after fertilization has taken place, which explains the 
variation in distinctness of ringing in the germinal disk, 
as previously noted. The development is slight under 
any condition, however, and stops instantly after the egg 
becomes cold, and the germ then remains dormant until 
again exposed to incubating temperatures. 

In natural incubation the germ receives its heat from 
the body of the sitting hen, the actual degree of heat 
varying with the fowl's bodily temperature, the character 
of the nest, and the egg's position in it. The normal tem- 
perature of the adult fowl varies with the individual, also 
with the manner in which it is taken. With a thermom- 
eter thrust into the fowl's rectum, temperatures as high 
as 110 degrees have been noted, though it is probable that 
106 represents a fair average. The common belief that 
the sitting hen has a "fever" and that her temperature is 
higher than under normal conditions probably is an error 
growing out of the fact that it is only when broody or 
sitting that the hen is subject to much handling and 
therefore the only time when her naturally high temper- 
ature is apt to be noticed. If the hen's temperature is 
taken with a thermometer in contact with the outside of 
the body the temperature will be lower than given above, 
running from 103 to 105 on the average. 

There is no practical means of recording the actual 
temperature of the embryo, but careful observations have 
shown that it is around 99 to 100 degrees during early 
stages of incubation, gradually increasing until it is in 
the neighborhood of 103 or 104 at time of exclusion. 

While fairly exact and uniform heat is essential to 
successful incubation, the germ will develop to a greater 
or less extent under a rather wide range of temperature. 
At low temperatures the germ will remain completely in- 
active, but cell division will begin at a little above 70 
degrees. At this temperature development will be slow 
and will continue for only a limited time when, unless 



28 



THE CHICK EML5RYO AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 



29 



the heat is decidedly increased, the germ will die. At 
higher temperatures cell division or growth proceeds with 
increasing rapidity, reaching the normal rate of develop- 
ment at a germ temperature around 99 to 100 degrees. 

If the temperature is raised above this point, cell 
growth will continue with increasing rapidity for a time. 
At high temperatures, however, the strain on the deli- 
cate walls of the embryonic heart and blood vessels be- 
comes severe and it is only a matter of time until the 
latter will burst, causing hemorrhages and the death of 
the embryo. At just what temperature this point will 
be reached depends to some extent upon the development 
of the embryo, which is much less able to stand high 
temperatures in early stages of growth than when well 
on the way to complete development. Also, an embryo 
may stand exposure to 110 degrees for a very short time, 
but will break down at even. 105 if held at that tempera- 
ture for some hours. 

When the egg is exposed to a suitable temperature, 
cell division begins at the point when it stopped when the 
eizg was laid. The germ will stand comparatively low tem- 
peratures while in dormant 
condition, the exact degree 
of endurance being deter- 
mined by the strength of the 
individual germ just as, later 
on, the endurance of the 
chick will be determined by 
its individual strength or 
constitutional vigor. A tem- 
perature of around 50 to 55 
degrees is generally regard- 
ed as most favorable to the 
dormant germ. 

Development of the Chick 
Embryo 

It is impossible, within the 
limits of this chapter, to 
give a complete description 
of the complex operations 

involved in the development of the chick embryo. There 
ire some general facts, however — some important steps 
a the process, with which the chick grower should be 
familiar in order to have a clear understanding of what is 
going on under the sitting hen or in the incubator. Many 
of the mistakes which prove common sources of loss to 
the beginner would be prevented if he clearly understood 
just how the embryo is produced, and the period of incu- 
bation at which certain phases of its development take 
place. Such details regarding embryonic growth as are 
here given are intended to supply that information. It 
is earnestly advised, however, that the beginner in artifi- 
cial incubation make a practice of breaking a few eggs at 
various stages of the hatch in order to compare them 
with the descriptions and illustrations here given, so that 
he may become thoroughly familiar with the normal rate 
of development. Before attempting to describe briefly 
the various stages in the development of the embryo a 
few special details or definition are necessary, these being 
mainly condensed from an elaborate treatment of the sub- 
ject in Lillie's "Development of the Chick." 

The Blastoderm. The position of the blastoderm ha< 
already been descrihed. The embryo arises within the 
opaque portion in the center, which becomes pear-shaped 
as the embryo forms. The embryonic membranes, 
amnion, chorion, and yolk sac, are parts of the blastoderm 
but originate outside of the opaque center. The allantoic 



arises directly from the hindpart of the embryo itself. 
During the first four days the blastoderm spreads rap- 
idly so that the greater part of the yolk is covered by 
the fourth day. 

Position of Embryo. The embryo is always in a 
definite position with reference to the axis of the egg. 
If this is placed with the large end toward the left of the 
observer the head of the embryo will always be directed 
away from him. There are but few exceptions to this 
rule. At a later stage in its development the embryo 
turns lengthwise of the egg, so that the head is in the 
larger end, unless the air cell happens to be in the small 
end in which case the normal position of the head will 
be reversed and, as a rule the chick then will not hatch. 

The Amnion. This membrane forms a thin sac com- 
pletely enclosing the embryo and containing a fluid 
which appears to act as a cushion, taking up all shocks 
and jars and thus forming an important protection for 
the embryo. It also protects the embryo from forming 
adhesions with the surrounding membranes or with the 
shell. It has various other functions which need not be 




FIG. 32 — APPEARANCE OF CHICK 

EMBRYO AFTER TWELVE HOURS 

OF INCUBATION 

Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 



FIG. 33— APPEARANCE OF CHICK 

EMBRYO AFTER TWENTY- FOUR 

HOURS OF INCUBATION 

Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 



detailed. The amniotic membrane possesses muscular 
fibers the contraction of which rocks the embryo, the pur- 
pose of which is believed to be to prevent adhesions. 

The Chorion. This membrane is on the outside of 
the amnion and encloses it. It is connected with the 
amnion, and the allantois also connects with it at an 
early stage in the development of the embryo. 

The Allantois. This membrane is the respiratory 
organ of the embryo, the blood in its vessels being 
aerated by air which passes through the porous shell. 
The allantois, being double-walled, forms a cavity or sac 
extending entirely around the embryo, with the outer 
wall coming in contact with the inner shell membrane. 
The cavity acts as a reservoir for the excretions of the 
embryo. At the end of the fifth day of incubation the 
allantois covers more than half of the embryo, and by 
the end of the sixth day it is entirely covered. By the 
eighth day the yolk sac is half covered and by the 
twelfth day the yolk is entirely enclosed, along with the 
remaining albumen which is wrapped in a separate sac 
by a special development of the chorion and allantois. 

The Yolk Sac. The yolk sac is formed as a mem- 
brane enclosing the yolk and is connected with the in- 
testine by means of a yolk-stalk. The material in the 
yolk is absorbed by the lining of the sac and carried to 
the embryo as required for its development. The inner 
surface of the sac is provided with numerous folds (septa) 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




FIG. 34 — APPEARANCE OF CHICK 

EMBRYO AFTER THIRTY -SIX 

HOURS OF INCUBATION 

Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 



which project more and more into the yolk substance as 
the embryo develops, increasing the absorptive surface. 
On the nineteenth day of incubation the yolk sac slips into 
the body cavity through the umbilicus which then closes. 
The inclusion of the egg is accomplished by the contrac- 
tion of the inner walls of the allantois and of the amnion 
which definitely presses it into the abdominai cavity. 
What is left of the yolk then is rapidly absorbed. Its 
aveiage weight is about 5.34 grains at twelve hours after 
hatching, and this is reduced to about .05 grains by the 
sixth day. 

Special Conditions Affecting Eggs in Natural Incubation 

The development of the embryo under the hen is af- 
fected by a number of conditions, and in learning to oper- 
ate the incubator to the best possible advantage it is de- 
sirable to have a clear understanding of the practices of 
the sitting hen because in many details it is to her that 
we must look for 'correct methods. If allowed to follow 
her natural instincts the hen will seek a secluded spot 
for her nest and will there lay out her clutch and begin 
sitting. In the selection of a location for a nest she is 
by no means exacting, almost any secluded place may 
strike her fancy, from a comparatively exposed location 
on the ground to one high up in the barn mow, and she 
will bring off equally good hatches, apparently, almost 
regardless of location, under normal weather conditions. 
In dry locations and in extremely dry weather, eggs do 
not hatch so well and in natural incubation sprinkling the 
eggs or providing moist earth bottoms for the nests is 
believed to be helpful in getting good results. Under 
ordinary weather conditions 
no such attention is re- 
quired. 

The number of eggs that 
will be laid by hens before 
they begin sitting will vary 
widely, owing to the fact that 
their normal performance 
has been greatly modified by 
domestication, breeding, and 
heavy feeding for egg pro- 
duction, also by the com- 
mon practice of removing all 
eggs from the nest each day 
so that there is never any 
accumulation in the nest. 
From 10 to 15 eggs can suc- 
cessfully be incubated by 
the average hen, the exact 



number being determined by 

season, location of nests, 
size of eggs, etc. 

There are wide differences 
in the results secured in 
hatching with hens. Other 
conditions being similar it 
would seem that equal num- 
bers of fertile eggs, placed 
under good sitting hens, 
should produce approximate- 
ly equal numbers of chicks. 
It is common experience, 
however, that with hens set 
under the same conditions 
and with eggs from the same 
pens, some hens will bring 
off many more chicks than 
others. There may be other 
factors involved, but it is probable that the temperature 
of the hens is largely responsible for this difference, 
some furnishing too little heat from start to finish, to 
produce good hatches, while others appear to start off 
at the right bodily temperature, but get out of condition 
and fall off as much as two or three degrees during the 
hatch. For illustration, in a series of tests made by the 
writer, six hens were set at the same time and with all 
conditions as to eggs, environment, etc., as nearly iden- 
tical as possible. The temperatures of the hens were 
carefully taken at the beginning and end of the hatch. 



FIG. 35 — APPEARANCE OF CHICK 

EMBRYO AFTER FORTY-EIGHT 

HOURS OF INCUBATION 

Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 



There were twe' 


ve eggs 


in each 


sitting. 


Th 


e hatches 


were as 


follows: 












Sitting 
No. 


Eggs 

Broken 


Eggs 
Fertile 


No. 

Chicks 


Temp, at 
Start 




Temp, at 
Close 


1 
2 
5 
6 
7 
9 


2 
2 

1 

2 


7 

7 

12 

11 

6 

10 


7 
3 
12 
9 
3 
9 


104 

103 

104% 

104 \'s 

103 

103 




104 

101 

104% 

1031/2 

1031/2 

104 y 4 






It will be seen that the hens that hatched practically 
every fertile egg (sittings 1, 5 and 9) were high in tem- 
perature, except No. 9, which started low, but finished 
high. No. 6 did well, though she finished a little low, 
while the two distinctly, low-temperature hens made al- 
most complete failures. Fertility was determined by the 
use of an ordinary egg tester and not by direct examina- 
tion of the germ, which probably would have given dif- 
ferent percentages of fertility, as a deficiency in heat 
that would result in a poor hatch of eggs known to be 
fertile would doubtless result in the death of some germs 
before they could reach a stage of development that 




FIG. 36 — APPEARANCE OF CHICK 

EMBRYO AFTER SIXTY HOURS 

OF INCUBATION 

Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 



FIG. 37 — APPEARANCE OF CHICK 

EMBRYO AFTER SEVENTY - TWO 

HOURS OF INCUBATION 

Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 



THE CHICK EMBRYO AND ITS DEVELOPMEN1 



31 




FIG. 38— APPEARANCE OF CHICK 

EMTRYO AFTER NINETY - SIX 

HOURS OF INCUBATION 



would be detected 
by the use of an 
egg tester. The tem- 
peratures in this ex- 
periment were se- 
cured by placing a 
thermometer on top 
of the eggs and in 
direct contact with 
the body of the hen. 

How Often Do Sit- 
ting Hens Turn 

Their Eggs 
There is reason 
for thinking that 
sitting hens regularly turn their eggs more frequently 
than is generally considered necessary in artificial incu- 
bation, but the frequency no doubt varies with the stage 
of the hatch and with individuals. There are practical 
difficulties in the way of determining exactly how often 
the turning is done, as hens are apt to be suspicious when 
watched and will make no movement of any sort. Direct 
examination of the eggs is of no assistance, as it will 
be found that the hen will turn her eggs as often as she 
is returned to the nest, if that is every half hour. 

There are several reasons why eggs must be turned 
more or less regularly during incubation, either natural 
or artificial. One is that fresh albumen may be brought 
in contact with the shell membrane and with the allantois, 
thus providing the necessary supply of oxygen for the 
blood. Another purpose in turning is to prevent the 
embryo from adhering to the shell. It is probable that 
turning also helps the embryo to get into proper posi- 
tion for normal development. There is also at least one 
incidental advantage realized in turning the eggs or at 
least shifting their position, which is the equalization of 
the temperature in different parts of the nest, thus secur- 
ing more uniform conditions for the different eggs. There 
is bound to be a rather wide variation in nest tempera- 
ture from center to outer edge, but the hen equalizes this 
by frequently shifting the eggs from the center to the 
outside and allowing the outer ones to roll to the center, 
thus giving all an equal chance and maintaining a fairly 
uniform rate of development in all. 

Natural Cooling of Eggs 

While the practice of hens differs widely, most of 
them leave the nest every morning with great regularity. 
In cold weather they absent themselves only long enough 
to secure necessary food and to evacuate the bowels, and 
then return at once to their duties. In warmer weather 
they will stay off for a longer period, sometimes for an 
hour or so. And it is to be noted that the hens that are 
most regular in coming off the nest daily are apt to have 
the best hatches, though no one has ever successfully 
proved that the cooling that results from their doing this 
has any direct connection with the better results secured. 
As regards artificial incubating, regular turning has some 
incidental advantages which are explained in the fol- 
lowing chapter. 

Moisture in Eggs 

The egg contains 70 to 76 per cent of water when 
first laid, but this percentage is gradually reduced by 
evaporation from day to day. This fact is taken advant- 
age of in one common method of determining the fresh- 
ness of eggs by observing the size of the air cell through 
a tester or candling device, the air cell increasing in size 



as the moisture evaporates. This method is only rela- 
tively accurate, as the rate of evaporation is modified 
greatly by the conditions under which the eggs are kept. 
However, while eggs that are far from fresh may have 
small air cells, as in the case of storage eggs, large cells 
are never associated with strictly fresh eggs. The re- 
quirements of incubation, either artificial or natural, de- 
mand that, at the beginning of the hatch, the egg shall 
be as nearly normal as possible with respect to percent- 
age of moisture contained. Hence, if they are not set 
at once it is desirable to keep them where they will not 
be unnecessarily dried out. 

Loss of Weight During Incubation 

Evaporation of moisture from eggs during incubation 
is essential to the proper development of the embryo. 
If evaporation progresses too rapidly the chick will be 
deprived of the amount of moisture needed in its devel- 
opment, and the difficulty of its getting out will be great- 
ly increased. If on the other hand there is too little 
evaporation as a result of high humidity in the air, either 
natural or artificially produced, there will be a "water- 
logged" chick that will not be normal, even if it suc- 
ceeds in escaping from the shell. Generally such chicks 
do not hatch at all, but either drown in the excess mois- 
ture present at the time they break through into the air 
cell and begin breathing through their lungs, or the 
space provided by evaporation and represented by the 
air cell is so small that there is not room for them to get 
into right position for breaking out of the shell after 
pipping. 

The chick embryo developing under a hen appears 
to be able to accommodate itself to a rather wide range 
in percentage of moisture present at hatching time, and 
will get out successfully whether evaporation has reached 
18 to 20 per cent of the total weight of the eggs, or 
goes no higher than 10 per cent, and there appears to be 
no noticeably unfavorable effect produced by either ex- 
treme. However, chicks that have been dried down ex- 
cessively are not apt to be as strong as those that have 
their normal percentage of moisture. Excessive drying 
down under hens is more or less common in extremely 




FIG. 39— CHICK EMBRYO AT 72 HOURS 
Egg- with embryo at same stage as in Fig-. 37, 
emptied into a dish to show the vena terminalis — the 
"belt lino" for the circulatory system. Photo from 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



32 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




FIG. 40— CHICK EMBRYO AT SEVEN DATS 
At this stage of development, yolk is almost entirely- 
enclosed in network of blood veins. Embryo at right. 
Photo from U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

dry weather, but there are few instances in which there is 
insufficient drying down under such conditions. Methods 
of exact determining and regulating the rate of evapora- 
tion in artificial incubation, are given in Chapter V. 

Oiling Hatching Eggs 

Eggs under sitting hens are always coated with a 
thin film of oil as is shown by their appearance and accu- 
rately determined by chemical analysis. Whether this 
coating of oil, which results from long contact with the 
fowl's body, is an accidental condition with no direct 
bearing upon the development of the embryo, or whether 
it plays an essential part in incubation, is not known. The 
fact that incubators are successfully operated without any 
substitute for this natural oiling would seem to indicate 
that it is not important. However, there are some known 
differences between eggs incubated the natural way and 
those artificially incubated, which have never been satis- 
factorily explained, and until these are clearly under- 
stood there is always the possibility that further refine- 
ments in methods may bring about still better results or 
greater certainty in securing them. So far as known, 



efforts to reproduce the oil film artificially have not as 
yet proved successful. 

Warming Eggs Daily While Holding for Hatching 

Under normal conditions the hen that steals her nest 
and lays out her clutch and then incubates the eggs, is 
apt to hatch practically every one, almost regardless of 
the length of time that may have elapsed between the 
laying of the first and the last one. There is no evi- 
dence to show that the oldest eggs are at any disadvant- 
age, or are any slower in hatching than those that are 
laid first, or that the chicks are any less strong when 
hatched. This is altogether different from general ex- 
perience in artificial incubation where the oldest eggs are 
always several hours later in hatching, and the chicks 
from such eggs generally are believed to be less vigorous 
than those from eggs that have been kept only a short 
time. 

Under the conditions of natural incubation as just 
described, the first eggs laid are subject to a daily 
warming up when the hen returns to lay on successive 
days, and it would seem that her well-known tendency to 
remain on the nest for a considerable time each day, 
either before or after laying, may be something more than 
incidental to the laying operation. It has previously been 
explained in this chapter that the germ already has un- 
dergone some development before the egg is dropped, 
and there is a possibility that the daily warming the first 
eggs receive prior to the time the hen begins sitting 
may, in a manner, vitalize the germs and thus enable them 
better to maintain their existence during the long wait 
while the rest of the eggs in the clutch are being laid. 

To determine this point the writer conducted a series 
of experiments in which eggs, kept for various periods, 
were subjected to a daily warming. In all such tests, 
without exception, it was found that eggs warmed for 
about an hour daily hatched better than eggs kept for the 
same period without warming. In tests to establish the 
proper length of time for the warming it was found that 
one hour gave better results than 30 minutes or two 
hours. Eggs up to 18 to 20 days old that have been 
warmed for one hour daily appeared to hatch as prompt- 
ly as comparatively fresh eggs, and before the egg tester 
the germs of these warmed eggs were plainly seen to be 
more active than those that had been held for an equal 
length of time, without warming. The warmed eggs be- 
gan hatching before those not warmed, and the oldest 
were among the first to hatch. There are difficulties in 
the way of applying this principle to practical hatching- 
operations, but it is important at least as giving addi- 



I 




FIG. 41— EGGS SHOWING DIFFERENT STAGES IN HATCH 
In the egg on the left pipping has just begun. The second ee:p; shows the normal progress of pipping as the 
chick turns itself In the shell, and breaks through the shell near the base of the air cell. In the third egg the 
shell is broken away to show the chick in position for pipping with the point of the bill against the inner sur- 
face of shell. Photos from Kansas Agricultural College. 



THE CHICK EMBRYO AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 



33 



tional light on the condition of the germ when the egg 
is laid, and its physical requirements during the holding 
period. 

How Long May Eggs Be Held for Hatching 
The length of time for which eggs may be held with- 
out injury to their hatching qualities depends upon a 
number of factors, and no general rule can be given ex- 
cept the always safe statement that they should be set 
as soon as possible after they are laid. The writer has 
kept eggs for 26 to 30 days with a 29 per cent hatch of 
all eggs set, and at other times has been able to secure 
practically no chicks at all after the eggs were 18 days 
old. Much depends upon the season of the year, the 
temperature at which the eggs are held, and still more, 
probably, upon the condition of the breeding stock. 
Speaking in averages, there will be a marked falling off 
in fertility after about the 14th day, and the percentage 
of hatch in eggs over 21 days old usually is too low to 



daily, provided they arc not held over 10 to 12 days. If 
kept for a longer time than this better results will be 
secured by turning. 

Washing Eggs 

Experiments have shown that washing eggs will af- 
fect their hatching, the difference .between washed and 
unwashed eggs averaging about 7.5 per cent. However, 
eggs that have been soiled under hens, also valuable eggs 
that have much foreign matter on them, doubtless will 
hatch better if washed than would be the case if incu- 
bated with the dirt adhering to them. This is especially 
true in the case of eggs that have been smeared by break- 
age of other eggs in the nest or during shipment. Since 
washing definitely reduces the percentage of the hatch, 
however, special pains should be taken to prevent the 
eggs from becoming soiled, and if they are only slightly 
so it is better to let them go without washing. 




I 





FIG. 42— SIZE OF CHICKS IS DETERMINED BY SIZE OF EGGS 
Eggs weighing 20 ounces to the Eprgs_ weighing 24 ounces to the Eggs weighing 30 ounces to the 



dozen. Chicks from them will be 
undersized and weakly. 



dozen. Standard-sized eggs and sat- 
isfactory for hatching. 



dozen. If normally this size, are ex- 
tra desirable. 



make it worth while to waste eggs or space in the incu- 
batoi in testing them out. 

Position in Which to Keep Eggs 
Within the limit of 8 to 12 days it does not appear 
to matter much what position the eggs are held in, or 
whether they are turned or not. In a series of tests eggs 
were held for varying periods up to 30 days, and in dif- 
ferent positions as follows: 

Flat, without turning. 
Flat and turned daily. 
Large end up not turned. 
Small end up not turned. 
On end and turned daily. 

Different tests gave slightly contradictory results, but 
in general there appeared to be no difference due to 
position, except that the eggs laid flat, whether turned 
or not, generally hatched a trifle better than those on 
end. Since the natural position for eggs is flat, that would 
seem to be the safest way to place them, though the dif- 
ference is so slight that there can hardly be any prac- 
tical objection to standing them on end, as in shipping 
cases, when it is more convenient to do so. Other tests 
indicated that there is no advantage in turning the eggs 



Resting Eggs After Shipment 

It is commonly believed that resting shipped eggs for 
a period of 24 hours after they are received is advisable 
in order to give the yolks time to settle into their normal 
position. Some recorded experiments indicate that there 
is no advantage in doing this, but since the loss of time 
is slight and the general opinion is that such resting is 
beneficial, it is the part of wisdom to follow custom in 
this respect until some definite proof is offered one way 
or the other. 

Size of Eggs to Use 

Other things being equal, large eggs will give better 
and stronger chicks than small eggs. Whether this is 
directly due to the size of the eggs or to the fact that 
the best, most mature, and most vigorous hens and the 
ones that are best fed usually are the ones that lay the 
largest eggs, is not clear. Whatever the exact cause may 
be, it is an established fact that the largest eggs, within 
the limits of normal size, give the best and strongest 
chicks, and for this reason all small, under-sized eggs 
should be discarded. Discrimination in favor of large 
eggs should not be carried so far as to include double- 
yolk eggs or those that, while single-yolked, are con- 
spicuously abnormal in size. 



CHAPTER V 

Operation of Incubators 



How to Buy Incubators— What Size to Get— How to Set Up the Incubator and Adjust It— Complete Instructions in All 

Details of Management Throughout the Hatch — Latest Information on Temperature, 

Moisture, Ventilation, and Other Special Problems. 



I^^v UMEROUS styles and grades of incubators are of- 

II § fered for the use of poultry keepers, and those 

grmT who are not familiar with their respective merits 
I ^Mwrl sometimes find it a difficult matter to select the 
machine that they really need, or that will most nearly 
meet their requirements. Naturally many mistakes are 
made — mistakes that involve serious disappointment and 
loss and that might readily have been avoided with a 
clearer understanding of the subject. Anyone who in- 
tends to purchase an incubator, large or small, can well 
afford to give careful thought to its selection, instead of 
"going it blind," or making price alone the basis of com- 
parison. 

Among lamp-heated incubators there are two gen- 
eral classes — those that are 
heated with hot air, and 
those heated with hot water. 
While each method of heat- 
ing has advantages peculiar 
to itself, choice between 
them is based mainly on per- 
sonal preference. The ad- 
vantages claimed for hot-air 
machines generally are great- 
er durability; more exact 
regulation under sudden 
changes of outside tempera- 
ture; quicker heating up 
after cooling down; and as 

ventilation generally is associated with the heating sys- 
tem, the air circulation is positive and ventilation is ad- 
justable over a wider range, and therefore has greater 
adaptability. For hot-water incubators it is claimed that 
they are less quickly affected by changes in outside tem- 
perature, and for this reason may give good results in 
reasonably favorable locations even when built with little 
insulation, which is impracticable with hot-air machines. 
This probably is the chief reason why most cheap incu- 
bators are of the hot-water type. 

The commonly observed fact that hot-water incuba- 
tors are most in demand in some localities while in oth- 
ers practically nothing but hot-air machines will be found, 
appears to be accidental, in part at least, and due to the 
good impression made locally by the first ones to be 
successfully used, of whichever type. There is a com- 
mon belief that hot-water incubators furnish a moister 
heat than hot-air machines which, in connection with their 
lower average price appears to explain much of their 
special popularity in arid and semi-arid sections. While 
the idea that moisture in the egg chamber is directly af- 
fected by the nature of the heating medium is erroneous, 
hot water incubators probably do have less air circulation 
on the average, than the more adjustable hot-air machines. 
The practical effect of this is to reduce the evaporation 
from the egg in hot-water machines, thus giving the im- 
pression that more moisture is present in them. 

Where gas is available, practically all lamp-heated in- 
cubators may readily be adapted to the use of this con- 
venient fuel. Under suitable regulation, gas is entirety 



dependable, it requires little attention, supplies a uniform 
heat, and as there are no lamps to fill, the labor of caring 
for the machines is greatly reduced. 

Electric Incubators 

In the last few years electrically heated incubators 
have been developed to a good degree of efficiency, and 
where current can be obtained at a reasonable rate the}' 
are thoroughly practical and may be used as successfully 
as lamp-heated machines and much more conveniently. 
The freedom from fire risk and from lamp fumes makes 
it practical to operate electrics where lamp-heated ma- 
chines would not be considered, and the saving in time 
required in caring for them will offset a decided increase 

in the cost of the current as 




FIG. 43— A PROFITABLE HATCH 



compared with the cost of 
oil or gas. A reasonably uni- 
form current is desirable. 
No harm will be done by 
having the current turned off 
occasionally, even though it 
may be off for several hours, 
but electric incubators are 
not recommended where the 
current is subject to fre- 
quent and long- continued 
interruptions. High-grade 
electrical machines should 
give satisfactory service for 
many years if properly cared for. They are subject to 
rapid deterioration, however, when exposed to dampness, 
and for that reason should be thoroughly dried out at the 
end of the hatching season, and stored in a dry place. 

Mammoth Incubators 

Of late years the use of "Mammoth" incubators has 
become general where chicks or ducklings are hatched 
in large numbers. There are several styles of mammoths 
on the market, but all are more or less alike in their 
general outlines. They are heated by means of hot water 
pipes supplied from a furnace or boiler which burns hard 
coal, as a rule, though gas is used when available. Mam- 
moths usually are divided into compartments of varying 
sizes and are more or less sectional in construction, so 
that the machines when set up resemble a series of lamp- 
heated incubators without the lamps. The use of mam- 
moth incubators saves labor and operating cost since 
there are no lamps to fill, and a single furnace or boiler 
will provide heat for a great number of sections; the 
cost of fuel also is reduced. They are not adapted to the 
requirements of small operators, and small-sized mam- 
moths are not generally regarded as economical, unless 
bought with the expectation of adding more sections at 
an early date. The cost of such a mammoth is equal to 
or greater than the cost of the same egg capacity in 
lamp-heated machines, and the saving in cost of oper- 
ation is hardly noticable. Where several thousand eggs 
are to be incubated at one time, however, mammoths are 
regarded as indispensable. 



34 



OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 



35 



The Cost of a Good Incubator 

Consideration of price ought not to figure too greatly 
in choice of lamp-heated incubators, and the common 
tendency to buy the cheapest machine obtainable is the 
cause of much disappointment and loss. It would not be 
correct to say that there are no good incubators but high- 
priced ones, but it should call for no special argument 
to convince any one that durable machines of the best de- 
sign and construction cannot be built to sell at extremely 
low prices. The manufacture of incubators is a plain 
business matter like the manufacture of any other kind of 
machinery or equipment. Some incubators cost more, 
simply for the material and the labor employed in them, 
than the retail price of others, and if practical, economical 
buyers in great numbers chose the higher-priced makes 
in preference to the cheap ones there must be sound busi- 
ness reasons for their doing so. 

The reasons for the general preference among ex- 
perienced operators for standard high-priced machines 
will be found in their greater durability on account of 
better material and workmanship used in their construc- 
tion: greater adaptability to conditions generally because 
of better insulation; more exact regulation and conse- 
quently greater uniformity of temperature. The plain 
truth of the matter is that the buyer who wants the 
most nearly automatic machine — one that will give best 
results under a wide range of conditions, that will last in- 
definitely without expensive repairs, and that has the 
endorsement of expert operators generally, will have to 
buy one of the higher-priced makes. 

This fact does not, however, eliminate low-cost incu- 
bators from practical consideration. If the machine is to 
be operated under favorable conditions; if the buyer 
wants a hatcher that will give good results for the time 
being, without asking too much in the way of durability; 
if the machine is to be used only for hatching in the nat- 
ural breeding season when vitality in the breeding stock 
is at its highest, and when climatic conditions are most 
favorable; if only one or two hatches are to be made each 
season so that it is not desirable to have much money 





FIG. 44— HOT AIR INCUBATOR WITH CLOTH 
DIAPHRAGM 

Tn this type of incubator the warmed air is diffused 
through cloth diaphragms, one of which is here dropped 
below natural position in order to show it. Courtesy 
Cyphers Incubator Company. 



locked up in equipment, then the purchase of a low- 
priced machine may be not only permissible, but the 
most practical thing to do. It is for the individual to 
consider carefully his own conditions and plans, and see 

that he gets the 

machine thai will ^^^HBSSHB ~k&K'' 

best meet them, 
chosing it neither 
because it is 
cheap, nor be- 
cause it is high- 
priced, but be- 
cause it is what 
he needs. 

What Size to Get 
Large incuba- 
tors are cheaper FIG 45— POPULAR HOT WATER 
to buy and to INCUBATOR 
operate than an In this machine heat is. provided 
(,„,,,! rsnaritv in h y means of hot water which circu- 
equai capacity in i a t es through coil of pipe in upper 
small machines part of the machine. Water is heated 
... by lamp at end. Courtesy of Buckeye 
and for that rea- Incubator Company. 

son it is desirable 

to get as large sizes as can be used to good advantage. 
There is no serious objection to running a large ma- 
chine without a full quota of eggs, but there is no way 
of making a small one hold more than its actual capacity. 
Therefore, in case of doubt always get the next larger 
size. Attention, however, should be called to the fact 
that incubators are designed to be operated approximate- 
ly at capacity, and when large machines are run with 
comparatively few eggs in them there may be complica- 
tions with respect to moisture and ventilation that would 
not be met with when the machine is operated with full 
trays. For this reason, also because it takes more oil 
to heat a large machine than a small one, it is unwise to 
get incubators that greatly exceed average require- 
ments. 

The proper size for the incubator is determined 
chiefly by the size of the breeding flock or the number 
cf eggs produced by it. Eggs should be incubated as 
soon as possible after they are laid — within 10 to 14 
days at the outside, and it is better to have two or three 
small machines that can be filled every 7 to 10 days 
rather than to have a large one that cannot be filled 
without holding the eggs for a much longer time in 
order to get the required number. Where this is done 
the percentage of the hatch will be greatly reduced on 
account of the low average of the older eggs. Another 
indirect disadvantage in the use of unnecessarily large 
machines is the tendency to set unsuitable eggs, such as 
would be discarded in filling a small machine, but which 
are apt to be used in order to make up the full number 
in the large one. It seldom is desirable to buy a ma- 
chine smaller than 150-egg capacity, and even that size- 
should not be selected unless the breeding flock is so 
small as to make this clearly the proper thing to do. 

Where to Place the Incubator 

The best place for the incubator usually is in a 
well-ventilated cellar. This is true because such a loca- 
tion provides a more uniform temperature than an above- 
ground house or room; there is more natural humidity 
in the air; the ventilating system of the machine works 
more certainly, especially in warm weather; and there is 
less danger of the hatch being tampered with by med- 
dling hands. Of course, a cellar can be a very poor 



36 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



place for the incubator if it is not what a cellar ought 
to be. To be suitable for hatching purposes it must be 
well ventilated, reasonably uniform in temperature, not 
wet, or moldy, or otherwise unwholesome. 

Incubators are successfully operated in above- 
ground rooms of various sorts, but unless especially con- 
structed for the purpose, machines in them require more 
attention and are less easily regulated. Also, in warm 
weather the room temperature is liable to be so nearly 
that of the egg chamber that the circulation of air 
through the machine is sluggish and will require a great 
deal of helping out by frequently opening the door, cool- 
ing the eggs for long periods, and other aids to ventila- 
tion. Wherever it is placed, be sure it is not in a draft 
or a current of air and that it is not exposed to direct 
sunlight. For plans for incubator houses and sugges- 
tions for adapting to incubator use rooms or buildings 
already constructed, see Chapter VIII. 

Setting Up the Incubator 

It is not wise to take even the best incubator too 
much for granted, and new ones should be carefully in- 
spected and tested in every working part to be sure that 
everything is as it should be before entrusting valuable 
eggs to them. Examine everything carefully when the 
machine is uncrated and test with especial care the reg- 
ulator and all its connections. Do not depend upon thu 
machine coming all set up and ready to fill with eggs 
as soon as the legs are screwed on and the lamp filled. 
Presumably that is the way every manufacturer desires 
to have it delivered to the purchaser, but there necessari- 
ly is a good deal of handwork about making and assem- 
bling an incubator, and errors are bound to occur no mat- 
ter how carefully the machine may be inspected at the 
factory. Moreover, it is liable to get rough usage in 
shipment and may be so badly jarred that its working 
parts will be disarranged or broken. 

Look the machine over carefully, therefore, in set- 
ting it up, and DON'T put the eggs in until it has been 
successfully operated for some time while empty. This 
injunction will stand almost any amount of emphasis. It 
would seem that any one sufficiently in earnest to buy 
an incubator, would be practical enough to be sure that 
it is in proper working order before filling it with valua- 
ble eggs. As a matter of fact, however, one of the most 
frequent causes of complaints among beginners is their 
practice of putting eggs in the machine when they 




FIG. 47— LAMP-HEATED INCUBA- 
TOR WITH ENCLOSED FLUE 
Courtesy of Reliable Incubator Co. 




FIG. 46— METAL COVERED INCUBATOR 
Courtesy of M. M. Johnson Company. 



KNOW that it is not properly adjusted. If the operator 
cannot maintain a uniform temperature before the eggs 
are put into the machine, he can depend upon it that he 
cannot do so afterward. 

How the Regulator Works 

The regulation of the temperature in practically all 
lamp-heated incubators is determined by the position of 
a damper over the 

heater or lamp flue ^-^s^0S^Sz3<i0^S 

which determines 
the temperature of 
the warmed air or 
water entering the 
heating system of 
the machine. The 
position of this 
damper is controlled 
by a thermostat 
which is connected 
with the damper in 
such a way that, 
when the heat in- 
creases beyond a 
certain point, the 
damper will be lift- 
ed and the surplus 
heat from the lamp 

allowed to escape. If the temperature drops too low, the 
thermostat releases the damper which then closes down 
over the flue, thus directing more heat into the machine. 
There are various types of regulators in use (see Fig. 51), 
all taking advantage of the fact that metals and liquids 
expand when heated and contract when cooled. The 
thermostatic bars and wafers are so made as to utilize 
this expansion and contraction by operating a regulator 
arm, on one end of which the damper is carried, and on 
the other a counterweight to balance the damper. 

The regulator and its correct adjustment are fully 
described by each manufacturer in his book of directions, 
and this description should be studied until the operator 
thoroughly understands its construction and operation. 
The regulator is the heart of the incubator and if it is- 
not correctly adjusted and kept in proper working order, 
exact temperature control is out of the question. The reg- 
ulators used in standard incubators are so sensitive that 
the correct temperature can be maintained with great ac- 
curacy, and with remarkably little at- 
tention from the operator, once the 
proper adjustment has been secured. It 
is extremely unwise however, to attempt 
to operate the machine until the work- 
ing of the regulator is understood. 

The Incubator Must Stand Level 

Incubators are built to stand practic- 
ally level, and unless they are placed in 
this position there is danger that the 
hot air or hot water will not circulate 
properly, especially in the larger-sized 
machines. Use a spirit level, if possible, 
and test the machine from side to side 
and from front to back. If a spirit level 
is not available, proper adjustment can 
be secured by placing on top of the 
machine a broad, flat pan or tray with a 
little water in it, and leveling the ma- 
chine until the water in the pan stands 



OPERATION OK INCUBATORS 



37 



at a uniform depth. See that the machine stands firmly 
on the floor or on the blocks used in leveling, so that 
it will not move or rock when touched. 

As a rule, when the machine is level the temperature 
in the different parts of the egg chamber will be uni- 
form. In some cases, however, especially with hot-air 
machines that are longer than they are wide, it may 
happen that, after levelling, the end next the lamp will 
be warmer or colder than the opposite end. If this proves 
to be the case the machine will have to be readjusted to 
meet this condition. The right thing to do is first to 
level exactly and then test the temperature, using two 
or more thermometers of known accuracy, and testing 
both ends, also front and back. If any difference is noted 
transpose the thermometers to be sure that the varia- 
tion is not in them. When certain that there is an actual 
and constant difference between the ends, or the front 
and back, the cold section may be raised sufficiently to 
equalize the temperature. In the case of machines hav- 
ing the heat flue enclosed, the difference in temperature 
between the two ends sometimes is more than it is wise 
to attempt to take care of by this method, the better 
plan in such cases being to secure the needed adjustment 
by raising the cold tray by means of strips of wood on 
the tray supports. 

The necessity for adjustments of this sort is especi- 
ally marked in cold weather; later in the season when it 
grows warm it may be necessary to readjust the ma- 
chine again. It seldom is desirable to throw hot-water 
incubators out of level, as tl.is is apt to interfere with 
the circulation of the water. If a serious variation is de- 
tected in such machines it is better to take care of it 
by the use of strips under the tray, as above described. 
If the front is colder than the back, look to the fitting of 
the door and if necessary tack strips of felt or similar 
material around the edges so that it will shut tight. 

Care of the Lamp 
Keep the lamp clean, and fill it and trim the wick 
strictly according to the directions of the manufacturer. 
Some machines are provided with large lamp bowls that 
only require filling now and then. Wicks generally need 
trimming once a day and when the flame is turned quite 
high it may be necessary to trim twice daily. It is never 
safe to leave a heavy char on the wick; to do so is to in- 
vite smoky flames, accumulations of soot in the chimney 
or heater, and more serious troubles. Do not trim with 
shears, however, unless it is found really necessary to do 




so. The easy way is to brush the char off with a match 
and smooth the edge down with the finger. Usually no 
other treatment will be needed. If this does not give a 
clear, even flame like the one shown in Fig. 74, then use 
the shears, but con- 
fine the trimming to 
the blackened por- 
tion of the wick. 

When putting in 
a new wick, always 
burn it off instead 
of trying to trim 
it with s h e a r s. I 
Light the dry wick 
with a match and 
burn it until it goes 
out at the wick 
tube, which gener- 
ally will give just 
the right shape to 
the flame. If not, 
the corners may be 
trimmed slightly 
(see Fig. 73). In- 




AIR INCU- 



LAHP-HEATBD HOT 
BATOR 
This popular incubator is heated 
by a current of warmed air and 
has a sand tray under the eggs for 
correct trimming supplying moisture When the 
hatch is coming off, sand tray is 
removed, and a burlap screen sub- 
stituted, providing a comfortable 
ar, smoky tlames nursery compartment for the chicks. 
Courtesy of Prairie State Incubator 
Company. 



will produce irregu- 



FIG. 48— IXCUBATOR AYITH THERMOMETER 

IN POSITION' 

This illustration shows position of standing 

thermometer as usually recommended — bulb about 

on level with top of eggs. Courtesy of Des Moines 

Incubator Company. 



like the one shown 
in Fig. 75. 

Keep an old toothbrush handy for brushing off the 
burner, especially the gauze screen. If this screen gets 
clogged with dirt the lamp will smoke. In placing the 
lamp in position under the heater, be sure that it properly 
engages the heater collar or chimney, whichever is used. 
Failure to do this may cause serious trouble. After light- 
ing the lamp leave the flame turned a little low until 
the burner gets warmed up, and never leave it for the 
day or the night until certain that it is properly adjusted. 
Any lamp flame is liable to "creep" up a little after it 
has burned for a short time and many complaints of 
smoking lamps are due to this cause. 

Starting the Hatch 

When everything is in proper working order and the 
temperature can be exactly controlled, the machine may 
safely be set. The best time to do this is in the morn- 
ing, when the eggs will have the entire day in which to 
warm up, thus making certain that the machine will reach 
the proper temperature and will stay there, before it is 
necessary to leave it for the night. Frequently, after the 
machine has been accurately adjusted to the desired tem- 
perature with the trays empty it will be found that, with 
the trays full of eggs, the temperature will go up a little, 
necessitating a slight readjustment of the regulator. The 
flame also may need a little attention, as there is no 
advantage in running it higher than is necessary to pro- 
vide the required amount of heat with enough over for 
emergencies. 

The eggs with which the trays are to be filled should 
be carefully selected, discarding every one that has any 
serious defect. There is no necessity for filling the trays 
exactly full if there are not enough suitable eggs for the 
purpose, and it is a wasteful practice to use eggs that 
cannot reasonably be expected to hatch. In case the trays 
are not full it is a good plan to have narrow strips of 
wood that may be laid across the trays confining the 
eggs to one place and preventing their rolling about. 

In case there are more eggs than the trays will ac- 
commodate in the regular way, they may be crowded 



38 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



somewhat by standing them nearly on end, with the 
large end up. Repeated tests have shown that the capac- 
ity of the trays may be increased about 20 per cent by 
this method, without any unfavorable effect on the hatch. 
The eggs may safely be left in this position until the 
third day, when they must be tested and the infertile ones 
taken out, which will leave sufficient room to lay the 
rest in their proper position. As it is not possible to 
test brown-shelled eggs with much accuracy until they 
have been in the incubator for four or five days, this 
method is not practical with them. Under no condition 
should the attempt be made to put a double layer of eggs 
on the tray. To do so will be to lose all those on top 
through overheating unless the temperature is adjusted 
to the top layer, in which case the under ones will suffer 
on account of too little heat. 

Correct Incubator Temperature 

As has already been pointed out in Chapter IV, 70 
degrees is about the "physiological zero" of the chick 
embryo. At temperatures above this point cell division 
begins, but proceeds very slowly and never progresses 
beyond an extremely limited stage of development unless 
normal incubation temperature is approximated. Above 
this temperature, growth proceeds at an abnormally rapid 
rate as the temperature rises and places a severe strain 
upon the embryonic organism that it cannot long endure. 
For this reason it is highly important that the tempera- 
ture of the egg chamber be maintained within compara- 
tively narrow limits, though reasonable variation prob- 
ably is in no way objectionable. There is little doubt 
that eggs under the sitting hen are subject to marked 
variation in temperature — greater in fact, than in any 
well-managed incubator. 

The exact temperature of the embryo during incuba- 
tion — that is, the temperature at which it will grow at 
a normal rate and will reach complete development and 
hatch out at the exact time intended by nature, is 99 to 
100 degrees at the beginning, gradually increasing to 
about 103 at the end of hatch. These temperatures are 
the same under all conditions and at all seasons. Incu- 
bator thermometers, however, are more or less affected 
by outside conditions and in order that the embryo shall 
receive the exact degree of heat required it is necessary 
to take into consideration the style of machine used, the 
position of the thermometer in the machine, the outside 
temperature, whether cold or warm, the stage of the 
hatch, etc. It is, therefore, impossible to fix on a cer- 





FIG. 50— ELECTRIC INCUBATOR 
Courtesy of Reliable Incubator Co. 



FIG. 49 — ELECTROBATOR 
Courtesy of Cypners Incubator Company. 



tain degree of temperature which is to be maintained 
at all times. 

In a general way the manufacturer prescribes the 
temperature at 
which his particu- '""'" "'"" " r " :i 

lar type of ma- 
chine should be 
operated, and it is 
unwise to take 
liberties with his in- 
structions, particu- 
larly in the way of 
substituting a dif- 
ferent style of ther- 
mometer for the 
one regularly sent 
out, or changing its 
position in the ma- 
chine. There some- 
Limes are special reasons why certain thermometers and 
certain temperatures are recommended for particular 
machines and no changes should be made in these de- 
tails. However, it should be understood that the manu- 
facturer's instructions are necessary more or less gen- 
eral, and because these advise to "run at 103 degrees," it 
must not be assumed that this temperature is to be ad- 
hered to under any and all conditions. There are a few 
general principles that must be kept in mind in operat- 
ing any machine, and some discrimination must be used 
in meeting unusual conditions. 

As has already been stated, the correct embryo tem- 
perature in the first days of incubation is 99-100 degrees. 
There is no practical way of taking that temperature, 
however, and in ordinary incubator operation, the ther- 
mometer may be located at any convenient point, if due 
allowance is made for the corresponding difference in 
temperature. This fact has resulted in the adoption of 
various styles of thermometers, two of which are illus- 
trated in Figs. 82 and 83. The inovo thermometer (now 
rarely used) was designed to give the temperature of the 
interior of the eggs, or the exact embryo temperature, 
but for various reasons it probably does no more than 
approximate that ideal, and is not conyenient in practical 
use. Some contact thermometers are mounted so as to 
lie on the top of the egg almost exactly over the embryo, 
and in that position will show a temperature somewhat 
higher than that of the germ itself. A practical objection 
to this style of thermometer is that if it is placed in con- 
tact with an infertile egg or one containing a dead or 
weak germ, after the eighth day of incubation, the tem- 
perature indicated will be lower than that of live embryos. 
Owing to the fact that this thermometer easily slips out 
of position, also because the eggs on which it rests vary 
more or less in size, the bulb is not always on the same 
level, leading to slight but undesirable inaccuracies in tem- 
perature readings. 

Standing thermometers give the temperature at or 
below the level of the top of the egg, and may or may 
not touch it. Some standing thermometers locate the 
bulb half an inch or so above the top of the eggs, giving 
about the same temperature as would be secured by a 
suspended thermometer. The latter usually is hung from 
a wire loop in the top of the machine and is so adjusted 
as to keep the bulb about half an inch above the eggs ; 
so that it will be practically unaffected by animal heat. 

So far as the hatch is concerned it matters little what 
style of thermometer is used if the temperature is main- 
tained at the point necessary to secure the correct embryo 




OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 



3 ( > 




FIG. 51— METAL-BAR REGULATOR FOR INCUBATORS 
Courtesy of Cyphers Incubator Company. 

temperature. The degree of heat required in incubation 
depends to some extent upon the stage of the hatch. The 
following table showing the internal temperature of eggs 
incubated under hens, for each day of incubation, is from 
Lillie's Development of the Chick: 

Day of incubation 12 3 

Temperature of hen 102.2 103.0 103.0 

Temperature of eggs 98.0 100.2 100.5 

Dav of incubation 11 12 13 

Temperature of hen 104.8 105.2 104.5 

Temperature of egg 101.8 102.2 102.0 

In a series of tests by the writer with incubators run- 
ning at approximately the correct theoretical embryo 
temperature, the following results were secured — the fig- 
ures given representing the average temperature recorded 
by each thermometer, for four S-day periods: 

First Second Third Fourth 

Period Period Period Period 

Inovo 98.89 99.21 99.79 100.91 

Contact 101.56 101.60 101.52 102.42 

Suspended 103.90 104.22 103.64 103.06 

It will be seen by this that the variation between 
thermometers in different positions is not the same at all 
stages of the hatch. While the suspended thermometer 
maintained approximately the same temperature through- 
out, the inovo and contact thermometers were decidedly 
lower at the start but gradually approached that of the 
suspended one. There was a difference of nearly five 
degrees between the inovo and the suspended thermom- 
eter during the last period, with the contact thermometer 
about midway between them. The Indiana Experiment 
Station definitely recommends a temperature of 101-102- 
103 degrees for the first, second, and third weeks respec- 
tively, using a standing thermometer on a level with the 
top of the egg but not touching them. In the experiments 
leading to this conclusion it was found that the standing 
thermometer regularly registered one-half a degree lower 
than contact thermometer. 

This graduation of the temperature for different 
periods of the hatch is secured by the occasional adjust- 
ment of the regulator, in the case of inovo, contact and 
standing thermometers, but with the suspended type with 
the incubator temperature maintained at practically the 
same point throughout the hatch, the animal heat of the 
growing embryo itself providing the desired increase, as 
is shown by the experimental data previously quoted. 

How Outside Conditions Affect Incubation Temperatures 

The recommendation to run at any given tempera- 
ture necessary is subject to some modifications, however, 
as determined by outside conditions, type of machine, 
whether or not the eggs are cooled, color of shells, etc. 
The attempt to run throughout the season at a uniform 
101-102-103 temperature, for example, will almost certain- 
ly lead to dissatisfaction. 

Most practical operators allow a difference of nearly 
a degree between cold and warm weather hatching tem- 
peratures, this being provided to offset the greater cool- 
ing down that the eggs receive in a cold room, and pos- 
sibly for other reasons. There is a common belief that 



high altitudes call for a somewhat higher temperature 
than is generally recommended, though there does not 
appear to be any actual proof of this. Brown-shelled eggs 
are supposed to require more heat than white-shelled 
ones. It is not likely that this is due to any difference in 
the actual degree of heat registered by brown and white 
eggs under exactly the same conditions, as some seem 
to suppose, but it is probable that brown-shelled eggs 
actualy have a slightly longer incubating period and hence 
require a higher temperature to bring them out in the 
time required by white-shelled eggs. Whether it is de- 
sirable that brown-shelled eggs be given extra time, or 
instead should receive additional heat in order to bring 
them off earlier, does not seem to have been carefully 



4 

10 -1.0 
100.6 


5 
103.8 
100.4 


6 

105.0 
101.0 


7 
104.6 
101.8 


8 

104.5 
102.5 


9 

105.0 
101.6 


10 
105.0 

102.0 


14 
105.0 
102.5 


15 
105.2 
102.0 


16 
105.0 
103.0 


17 
104.6 
102.4 


18 
104.8 
103.0 


19 
104.5 
103.0 


20 
104.5 
103.0 



investigated, but in general practice the latter plan usual- 
ly is followed. 

The normal period of incubation for hen eggs is 
stated as "21 days," but the actual time required is some- 
what less than that. The incubation period can be short- 
ened or increased by several hours without any apparent 
ill effects. It is general experience that chicks may come 
out on the 20th day and be quite strong and vigorous, 
while they may be delayed until the 22nd day without in- 
jury. The development of the chick is more or less un- 
der the control of the operator who can hasten or retard 
progress by the degree of heat supplied, or the length" of 
the cooling periods. 

Effect of Too Much Heat 

In considering excess heat it is necessary to distin- 
guish between short-time exposure to temperatures high 
enough quickly to endanger the life of the embryo, and 
longer exposure to temperatures only little above nor- 
mal. The effect of high temperatures is to quicken cell 
division and stimulate more rapid growth in the embryo, 
and if the heat is not too high the embryo will live and 
develop, but will hatch prematurely or before it has had 
time to "ripen." At higher temperatures the heart and 
arteries will 
b e overtaxed 
and hemor- 
rhages will re- 
sult, produc- 
ing what is 
com monly 
known as 
" blood rings " 
in early stages 
of develop- 
ment. Any 
t e m p e rature 
above 104 de- FIG - 52— SMALL TRAY, USEFUL IN TURN- 

. , ing Eggs 

grees witn a Where eggs are turned by shuffling, a 

contact ther- small tray holding 15 to 18 eggs should be 
provided to avoid breakage. Courtesy of 
mometer IS Buckeye Incubator Company. 

"high" and if 

continued for any length of time will injure or kill the 

embryo. The further the development of the embryo has 

piogressed the better able it is to stand excessive heat, 

so that in late stages of the hatch temperatures as high 

as 110 degrees can be endured for a very short time. In 

all cases when eggs have been overheated, they should be 

removed from the machine at once and cooled in order 

to reduce the blood pressure as quickly as possible. In 




40 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



addition to the direct injury to the embryo, overheating- 
is believed to bring about unfavorable changes in the 
yolks, causing one form of "white diarrhea" in the newly 
hatched chicks. 

Effect of Too Little Heat 

It is not probable that moderately low temperatures, 
unless too long continued, do any real harm aside from 
delaying the hatch, which is harm enough of course, but 
not apt to be so disastrous as overheating. Low tem- 
peratures during early stages of the hatch can be offset 
to some extent by operating at a higher temperature 
later on. Up to a certain point it does not appear to 
matter whether the heat is maintained at the exact nor- 
mal temperature throughout the hatch or is subject to 
moderate fluctuation, provided th; total number of re- 
quired heat units is supplied. From a practical view- 
point, however, irregular temperatures greatly increase 
the difficulty of operating the machine and bringing the 




FIG. 53— A THREE COMPARTMENT MAMMOTH INCUBATOR 
Courtesy of Newtown Giant Incubator Corporation. 



hatch off at the right time. It is desirable therefore that 
the temperature be kept as uniform as possible, that all 
extremes be avoided, and that every departure from cor- 
rect temperature be followed by prompt correction. It 
should be remembered that too much cooling or cooling 
to too low temperatures, and leaving the eggs out for a 
long time in warm weather even though they are not 
cooled down noticeably, will delay the hatch just as cer- 
tainly as low temperatures in the machine. 

Every one who runs an incubator should keep a daily 
temperature record or chart like the one shown on page 
47. A seemingly slight variation, if frequently repeated, 
may appreciably affect development of the embryo, but 
with a record of temperature variations from day to day, 
a tendency to run too low or too high can readily be de- 
tected and correction made before harm is done. The 
importance of doing this is all the greater from the fact 
that the average beginner generally regards whatever 
temperature is recommended for his machine, as the max- 
imum rather than the average to be maintained. In other 
words, if the instruction book says that the temperature 
should be kept at 103 degrees he is apt to feel that he 



dare not go above that, but that no harm will result if 
it drops below, now and then. So, to be on the safe side, 
he runs a little low most of the time, and as a result the 
hatch is seriously delayed. A daily record should help 
to overcome this tendency. 

Turning the Eggs 

Turning should begin on the morning of the third 
day and should be continued thereafter until the chicks 
begin to pip. Sometimes directions are given to discon- 
tinue turning on the 18th day, regardless of the stage of 
development. This is correct only when the chicks come 
out on schedule time, in which case they will begin 
pipping on the 20th day. In the case of delayed hatches, 
however — and there are many such, especially early in the 
season — much better results will be secured if the turn- 
ing is continued until pipping actually begins, even 
though this may not be until the 21st day. 

When the trays have flat bottoms and the sides are 
of proper height, the eggs may all be turned 
at the same time, by placing an extra tray 
over the full one and, holding the trays firmly 
in the hands, simply flop them over. This 
cannot be done with trays with sloping bot- 
toms, and even where it is practicable many 
operators prefer to turn by shuffling, believ- 
ing that better results are secured by that 
method. In turning this way, 12 to 18 eggs 
are removed from one end of the tray and 
the rest then are pushed over into the empty 
space, using the flat of the hand and shifting 
the eggs about more or less at the same time 
so as to change their position in the tray, 
after which the eggs that have been removed 
are returned to the empty end. This method 
keeps the eggs shifting about and equalizes 
any slight irregularity in temperature that 
may exist at different points on the tray, 
thus giving all the eggs an equal chance. 

It is a good plan to provide a small tray 
in which to place the eggs that are taken out, 
as they are liable to be cracked in laying 
them on a hard surface, such as the top of 
the work table or the incubator. Make the 
tray about 5x15 or 18 inches, with a bottom 
of fine wire or duck, and have the sides ex- 
tend at least an inch below the bottom so that the latter 
will not touch whatever the tray may be resting upon 
One or more of these small trays will be found convenient 
for a variety of purposes in handling hatching eggs. 

Some extra conscientious persons mark the eggs so 
that they can be certain that they have been turned com-. 
pletely over each time, but there is no necessity for doing 
this and it consumes a good deal of time. It is import- 
ant, however, to see to it that the eggs always lie with 
the large end up. The experienced operator places a 
little pressure on the eggs in turning and with slight ef- 
fort keeps the small end down without paying any special 
attention to the matter. In order to be sure that they 
are in this position, however, it is advisable for the be- 
ginner to look the trays over, caiefully turning down any 
eggs found with the small end up. 

It is not meant by this that the eggs are to stand 
on end, but simply that the small end should be lower — 
the position they naturally take in the nest. The purpose 
of doing this is to fix the air cell in the large end of the 
egg, which is essential to the normal development of the 
embryo and its successful exclusion. Especially during 






OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 



41 



v .'"" . JefiaS* • 9 


1 

BBS 1 I 


A 




\ 





FIG. 5 4 — APPEARANCE OF FERTILE EGG 
BEFORE TESTER AFTER SEVEN DAYS 

OF INCUBATION 

At this stage of development, the germ 

should be plainly seen toward the upper end, 

and usually will be* in motion, appearing and 

disappearing in a regular, pulsating movement. 

the early stages of incubation, permitting the small end 
to remain uppermost will cause many air cells to form 
in that end, with serious consequences to the embryo. 

Numerous mechanical egg-turning devices have been 
introduced from time to time and have enjoyed varying 
degrees of popular favor, but many operators feel that 
the advantages of hand turning fully compensate them 
for the time required in doing it. In all cases, regardless 
of how the eggs are turned, the position of the trays in 
the machine should be changed from day to day, turning 
them end for end, and shifting from side to side if the 
machine has more than one tray, in order to equalize in- 
equalities in temperature. 

The frequency with which eggs should be turned is 
largely a practical question. Twice a day is as often as 
the average operator feels that he can afford to do it, 
though it is probable that the hen turns her eggs much 
more frequently. Twice a day appears to be sufficient, 
so far as the actual requirements of the embryo are con- 
cerned, but under special conditions there is reason to be- 
lieve that more frequent turning will prove advantageous. 
Especially in warm weather, when the temperatures of 
the room and the incubator are so nearly the same that 
the ventilation of the machine is sluggish and uncertain. 
it is probable that opening the door and taking the eggs 
out for an extra turning or two each day will give better 
ventilation and may prove directly beneficial to the 
embryo. 

How to Use the Egg Tester 

The object in testing eggs is to remove the infertile 
ones, to follow the development of the air cell, and to 
watch the growth of the embryo. While some operators 
do not remove infertile eggs or do any systematical test- 



ing at all, a good hatch under such conditions is purely 
a matter of luck, and no one who really wishes to be suc- 
cessful will follow this slipshod method. The opportuni- 
ties which testing affords for checking up on fertility of 
the eggs, and on the temperature, moisture, and ventila- 
tion of the machine, are invaluable. 

With a good tester the first test for the removal of 
infertile eggs may be made as -early as the third day 
in the case of white-shelled eggs, while those with brown 
shells can be tested on the fourth or fifth day. The be- 
ginner, however, will do well to wait for another day or 
two, as he will find it much easier to detect fertility then, 
and there is no practical advantage in extremely early 
tests. While the careful operator will make it a practice 
to test a few eggs every day or so after the first few 
days, two or three general tests are all that are really 
necessary to the proper operation of the machine. If 
the rate of evaporation is to checked up by weighing the 
eggs (see page 43) it will be found convenient to divide 
the hatching into three 6-day periods, weighing on the 
sixth, twelfth and eighteenth days, doing the weighing and 
testing at the same time. 

On the sixth day the germ should be plainly seen, 
even in brown-shelled eggs. At this time there will be a 
central opaque spot about a quarter of an inch in diame- 
ter with blood vessels reaching out from it on all sides, 
the embryo being sufficiently developed to give the yolk 
a distinctly different appearance from that of an infertile 
egg, though the yolk will not be entirely enclosed by 
the net work of blood vessels until about the 8th day. 

Embryos that die during the first few days usually 
are "blood-ringed," the germ spot being surrounded by a 
more or less clearly defined ring the size of which will 
depend on the stage of development at which the germ 
died. Sometimes the dead germ will show as a dark 




FIG. 55— APPEARANCE OF FERTILE EGG 
BEFORE TESTER AFTER TWO WEEKS 

OF INCUBATION 
At this stage the egg will be almost en- 
tirely opaque, showing only a narrow trans- 
parent edge along the lower side. 



42 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



spot with indistinct outlines and no ring. Since a weak 
or undeveloped germ may have the same general appear- 
ance, such eggs should he marked and put back for a 
few days more when, if dead, their development will be 
so far behind that of the living germs that there will be 
no danger of confusing them with the latter. 

Infertile eggs will be practically as clear at this test 
as when they were first placed in the machine. For that 
matter, they will remain so throughout the hatch if left 
in. It is not desirable to do this however, if for no other 
reason than that their presence in the tray adds to the 
time required to turn the eggs, while in case a contact 
thermometer is used the correct temperature will not be 
secured after the first few days, unless the operator is 
careful to see that the thermometer always rests on a 
fertile egg. The air cell on the seventh day should be 
about as shown in Fig. 63. If it is noticeably smaller or 
larger, the ventilation or moisture, or both, will need at- 
tention. In determining the extent of evaporation by 
the size of the air cell, it is important to be sure that a 
correct average is taken, since when eggs of different ages 
are set together, or those having shells of varying degrees 
of porosity, there will be a good deal of irregularity in 
the size of the cells. 

In testing it is desirable to use as strong a light as 
is available for the purpose. The small lamp testers that 
generally are sent out with the machine serve fairly well 
to determine the presence of the germ and the size of the 
air cell, but to do early testing and to follow the develop- 
ment of the germs, strong light is necessary. Sunlight is 
excellent for testing purposes and there are various ways 
of utilizing it. As an emergency measure a roll of stiff 
paper can be used, simply holding one end to the eye and 
placing egg at other end and directing it toward the sun. 





FIG. 57— EGG WITH 
SPIRAL SHELL 

When examined be- 
fore the tester, eggs 
frequently will be found 
in which the shell is 
marked by dark spiral 
rings as indicated above. 
Such eggs rarely hatch. 



FIG. 56— APPEARANCE OF INFERTILE EGG 
BEFORE TESTER 
An infertile egg examined before the tester 
should be almost clear, the yolk show-ins but 
faintly even after having been in the incubator 
for two weeks, as was the case with egg here 
shown. 



Different Styles of Testers 

For day testing the incubator room may be ar- 
ranged so that it can be darkened, and a window facing 
the sun provided with a covering having one or two 1 J4~ 
inch holes, in front of which the eggs are held. Sunlight 
testing is frequently inconvenient and for cloudy days 
and night work artificial light must be used. Electric 
light is best, using "Mazda", bulbs. Ordinary incandescent 
bulbs give a yellow light which 
is not desirable. If electricity 
is not available acetylene may 
be used, also gas, or kerosene — 
with mantles if possible, to 
avoid yellow flames. All of 
these lights (except electricity) 
generate a great deal of heat 
which may prove uncomforta- 
ble in the small, close quar- 
ters in which eggs often are 
tested, and the enclosures pro- 
vided for the lights must be of 
good size and well ventilated to 
avoid broken mantles and chim- 
neys. There are a number of 
high-grade egg testers on the 
market and it generally is bet- 
ter and cheaper to buy these 
than to experiment with home- 
made contrivances. 

When the eggs are tested on 
the twelfth to fourteenth day, any doubtful ones may be 
removed, also any infertiles that may have been over- 
looked in the first test. At this time the air cell should 
be about the size shown in Fig. 63, and proper changes 
should be made in the ventilation or moisture, if the air 
cells are not developing normally. The fertile egg will 
appear as in Fig. 55 and the embryo will be more or less 
active, regularly rising and falling, or appearing and dis- 
appearing, before the tester. The egg generally will be 
opaque below the air cell but there may be a bright edge 
along the undeiside of the egg as shown. This should 
be of limited extent however. If there is a large bright 
area, the development of the embryo is not progressing 
in a normal manner. 

Dead germs may be found in various stages of devel- 
opment, but they are not easily distinguished unless they 
have died during the first few days. It is not usual for 
dead germs to decay in the incubator, but they sometimes 
do so. In case the odor on opening the machine indicates 
the presence of rotten eggs they should be removed at 
once. It u/ually is not necessary to test all the eggs to 
find them, as they can be more quickly discovered by 
their outward appearance, or by holding the nose close 
to the eggs. 

On the eighteenth day the final test will be made. At 
this time the embryo should fill the shell with the excep- 
tion of the air cell and the eggs before the tester will 
have throughout a plain opaque appearance. The chick 
may even have broken through the membrane into the air 
cell, filling it also, though not unless development has been 
little too rapid. This final test enables the operator to 
determine whether or not the chicks may be expected to 
come out on time and whether ventilation and moisture 
have been correct. It affords the last chance of making 
adjustments to correct errors in this respect, also in tem- 
perature, but such final changes can only be slight. 

Ventilation and Moisture 
The purpose of ventilation is to provide the growing 



OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 



43 



FIG. 




embryo with a constant supply of fresh air, 
and while its requirements in this respect 
are limited, they are by no means negligi- 
ble. As a rule, ventilation and moisture are 
the manufacturer's problems and he can 
safely be assumed to have solved them in 
a general way, so far as his machine is con- 
cerned, though there is always some oppor- 
tunity for the operator to help in final ad- 
justment. Incubators that are intended to 
meet any and all conditions under which 
they may be operated, generally are pro- 
vided with comparatively large adjustable 
openings so that sufficient ventilation can be 
secured to meet all requirements of location 
and season. Some machines permit only the slightest ad- 
justment in this respect, the 
amount of ventilation being 
fixed by the manufacturer at 
the point where best results 
will be secured under aver- 
age conditions and during 
the natural hatching season. 
This plan has the advantage 
of simplifying the manage- 
ment of the machine and 
prevents extreme adjust- 
ments either way (a common 
mistake among beginners), 
but does not afford oppor- 
tunity for meeting extreme 
or unusual requirements. 
As has already been ex- 
FIG. 58 — APPEARANCE plained, the egg contains all 
OF EMBRYO AFTER ., . . , , , iU 

SEVEN DA.YS OF moisture needed for the 

INCUBATION development of the embryo 

This diagram indicates and for successful exclusion, 
the appearance of normal and a liberal additional al- 
lowance to meet the natural 
loss from evaporation. It is 
essential that the normal rate 
of evaporation be main- 
tained, and as this depends 
upon the circulation of air 
in the machine and the degree of moisture which the air 
contains, moisture and ventilation are closely associated 
together. Evaporation dur- 
ing the hatch varies rather 
widely with the season, and 
there is some disagreement 
among investigators in re- 
gard to what the normal 
loss of moisture should be. 
However, a reduction of 
about 13 per cent in the 
weight of the eggs from the 
first to the eighteenth day, 
may be taken as a safe aver- 
age. While the degree of 
evaporation may be approx- 
imated by observing the de- 
velopment of the air cell, as 
already described, it may be 
followed much more accu- 
rately by weighing the eggs 
at regular intervals. 

The beginner who has a 
reliable set of scales at hand 
and will weigh the eggs at 





61— AIR CELL 
OF EGG 



ON SIDE 



This frequently occurs where 
the eggs have not been properly 
turned. 



FIG. 62— EGG WITH AIR CELL 
IN SMALL END 

When the air cell develops In 
the small end, the chick rarely 
hatches. 



embryo after seven days, 
with outlines of germ cen- 
ter and blood vessels dis- 
tinctly brought out. Com- 
pare with Fig. '. Repro- 
duced from Cornell Uni- 
versity Reading Course, 
Bulletin No. 80. 




FIG. 59— DEAD GERM AD- 
HERING TO SHELL 
Germs that stick fast to 
the shell will develop for 
a short time but soon die, 
presenting an appearance 
similar to the above, when 
examined through the egg 
tester. Cornell University 
Reading Course, Bui. 80. 



regular intervals, for example on the 1st, 6th, 12th, and 
18th days, will find it an easy matter to control the evap- 
oration and keep it just where it should be, either by ad- 
justment of ventilation or by supplying moisture. The 
evaporation from the eggs proceeds a little more rapidly 
as the hatch progresses, and should average about 7>y 2 
per cent the first 6 days, 4 to Ay 2 per cent from the 6th 
to the 12th day, and 5 per cent from the 12th to the 18th 
day. To get the percentage of evaporation, the net 
weight of the eggs without the tray should be used, and 
care must be taken that at the first weighing the tray 
shall be thoroughly dry, otherwise the evaporation from 
it will lead to error. The tray should be weighed before 
being filled with eggs, and its weight regularly deducted 
from each subsequent weighing. 

By way of illustration, if 100 eggs weigh 200 ounces 
net, when placed in the machine, their weight at the end 
of the 6th day should be 192-3 ounces. At this time 
the eggs probably will be tested and the infertile ones 
removed after which they should be weighed again. If 
20 infertiles are taken out this will reduce the net weight 
to perhaps 155 ounces. At the end of the 12th day the 
eggs should weigh about 6y 2 ounces less, leaving the 
total weight about 148j/£ ounces. If no eggs are taken 
out there will be a further loss of 5 per cent, by the end 
of the 18th day, or 7 l / 2 ounces, leaving the net weight 
about 141 ounces. If a few eggs are broken or removed 
for any cause, deduct their average weight to get the 
net weight of the remaining eggs, before taking the per- 
centage. 

How Evaporation May Be 

Controlled 



If at any stage of the 
hatch the evaporation is 
found running below the 
percentages just given, it 
must be increased by pro- 
viding more ventilation and, 
if necessary, a slightly high- 
er temperature in the ma- 
chine, also by longer cooling 
periods. If the evaporation 
is running too high, it may 
be checked by reducing the 
ventilation or, if that is not 
desirable, by supplying 
moisture. The easiest and 
simplest way to do this, 
when it is possible, is to 
sprinkle the floor of the cel- 
lar in which the machine is 
being operated, or place pans 
or tubs of water under the 




FIG. 60— A "BLOOD RING" 

Germs that die during 
the first few days of in- 
cubation, particularly as 
the result of overheating, 
show more or less distinct 
"blood rings'' when tested. 
Cornell University Read- 
ing Course. Bui. No. 80. 



44 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 





FIG. 63 — DEVELOP- 
MENT OP AIR 
CELL DURING 
INCUBATION 

The average size of 
air cell at various 
stages of incubation 
is indicated in above 
diagram. Line marked 
1, indicates average 
size in fresh eggs. 
Lines marked 6, 12 
and 18 represent aver- 
age size after a cor- 
responding number of 
days of incubation. 
Size of air cell is con- 
trolled by ventilation 
and moisture. 



FIG. 64 — EMBRYO 

READY TO BREAK 

THROUGH INTO 

AIR CELL 

When the embryo 
has practically com- 
pleted i t s develop- 
ment, or about the 
19th to 20th day, it 
breaks through the 
membrane, separating 
it from the air cell, 
and occupies this 
space. The irregular 
line here shown is 
characteristic of ap- 
pearance of egg be- 
fore tester just before 
this occurs. 



machine, using hot, steaming water if conditions demand 
it. Be governed in this by the directions of the manu- 
facturer. If he specifies a particular way in which to 
supply moisture, be sure that there is a good reason for 
it and follow directions exactly. One method of regu- 
lating the evaporation of the eggs is by the use of a 
hygrometer (see Fig. 77). This instrument is designed 
to indicate the relative humidity of the air in the machine. 

Ventilation is considered but little in the practical 
operation of incubators, aside from its influence on evap- 
oration and moisture. When there is sufficient air circu- 
lation to dry the eggs down at the normal rate, there is 
little danger that there will be any deficiency in meeting 
the needs of the developing embryos for oxygen. Recent 
investigations at the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station 
indicate that while the amount of carbon dioxide (which 
is the usual basis of comparison in determining the purity 
of the air) is 3 parts in 10,000 volumes of fresh air, it is 
decidedly higher under the sitting hen and increases to 
50 to 60 parts toward the end of the hatch. 

In commercial incubators the proportion runs well 
below that found under hens. Even when the proportion 
of carbon dioxide is artificially increased much above 
what is regularly found in incubators or under hens, it 
does not appear to have any marked influence on the 
hatch until it reaches about 150 parts, so that the purity 
of air in the incubator need hardly concern the practical 
operator. As a matter of fact, the average incubator, in- 
stead of being deficient in ventilation, is more likely to 
afford too much, which is the chief reason for supplying 
moisture, this being done to offset the excessive evapora- 
tion that naturally accompanies a too rapid change of air. 

As a rule, the danger of excess ventilation in incu- 
bators applies only to their operation in cold weather. 
In warm weather or in heated rooms the circulation of 
air is apt to be quite slow unless the machine is provided 
with unusually large ventilating openings. 

Cooling An Aid to Ventilation 
The necessity for cooling the eggs down each day 
during incubation is a much-debated point about which 
we have surprisingly little accurate information, consider- 



ing how energetically the subject has been discussed. It 
is doubtful whether there is any advantage in cooling 
early in the season, and the practice generally results in 
a low average temperature, thus delaying the hatch. The 
general tendency is for early hatches to fall behind the 
normal rate of development at any rate, and cooling* 
simply means further delay. 

When the eggs are cooled down until they are cold 
to the touch, which may happen in a very short time in 
winter hatching, it will take two or three hours to bring 
them back to the right temperature again, and as a re- 
sult the embryos will not get the required number of heat 
units unless the deficiency is made up by running the 
machine at a higher temperature. Merely turning the 
eggs probably gives them all the cooling they need under 
such conditions. 

If cooling is to be practiced because it is the "nat- 
ural way," it must be remembered that when the hen re- 
turns to the nest she can warm the eggs up in a very 
short time, through the application of contact heat, while 
the incubator is much slower, taking from one to three 
hours to do what the hen will do in half an hour or less. 
For this reason, cooling in artificial incubation must 
either be for a decidedly shorter time than under natural 
conditions, or the machine must run at a higher tempera- 
ture in order to offset the slower heating up after re- 
turning the trays to the machine. 

In warmer weather or where the machine is operated 
in a heated room there probably is a distinct advantage in 
regular daily cooling as a means of' improving ventilation. 
In this case cooling may begin about the 6th or 7th day 
and should continue until the 18th. In a cool room the 
rule should be to leave the eggs out until they are luke- 
warm or neutral to the touch — that is, feeling neither cold 
nor warm. This rule will not apply in a warm room, 
however, where it might be necessary to leave the eggs 
out for an hour or two to bring them down to such a 
temperature, which is not at all desirable. In this case, 
cool for a few minutes only, at first, gradually increasing 
the time until the eggs are out 20 to 30 minutes near the 
end of the hatch. It seldom is desirable to leave them 
out for a longer time than this unless they have been 
overheated or are developing too rapidly as a result of 
a general high average temperature. In all cases keep 
the door of the incubator closed while the eggs are out, 
and do not expose them to drafts or currents of air. 
Under no condition should eggs be cooled if they are 
known to be underdeveloped for the stage of the hatch. 




FIG. 65— PEDIGREE HATCHING BASKETS 
Courtesy of Maine Exp. Station. 



OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 



45 




FIG. 66— MOSQUITO NETTING BAGS FOR PEDIGREE 

HATCHING 

Courtesy of Kansas Experiment Station. 

On the other hand, if they have been accidentally over- 
heated, cool them down at once. 

Bringing Out the Hatch 

After the eighteenth day there is little that can be 
done by way of favorably influencing results. If at this 
time it appears that too much ventilation has been given, 
moisture may be supplied, and in most machines it is 
customary to use moisture regularly from this time un- 
til the end', doing this in the exact manner recommended 
by the manufacturer. No amount of supplied moisture 
can restore what has been taken from the eggs, but with 
plenty of humidity in the machine at hatching time, even 
chicks that have been dried down too much during the 
earlier stages of the hatch will have a fair chance to get 
out. If the eggs have not been dried down sufficiently, 
more ventilation can be supplied for a short time, but this 

t be done cautiously and promptly reduced to meet 
the manufacturer's instructions when the chicks begin to 
come out, otherwise there is danger that the air in the 
machine w r ill be lacking in moisture. If the temperature 
has been too low, resulting in a delayed hatch, more heat 
may be given, and less if there appears to be danger of 
the chicks coming off too soon. 

These last-minute adjustments however, offer at 
best only a choice of evils, and there is strong probability 
<hat more harm than good will be done by them. No mat- 
ter how desirable it may appear to have provided more 
or less heat, moisture, ventilation, cooling, or whatever 
detail may have been improperly adjusted, it now is too 
late to do much by way of correcting conditions. Only 
slight changes may be made at this time; for the rest, 
it is necessary to accept the result, whatever it may be, 
and learn the lesson so well that there will be no danger 
of making the same mistake again. 

The beginner must learn to keep cool in the face of 
poor hatches, and not let an obvious error, such as bring- 
ing off the chicks too soon, drying down too much, or 
any of the mistakes that may be made, lead him to go to 
the other extreme in the next hatch. He should remem- 
ber that he is working with extremely narrow margins 
all along the line, and the result of any hatch is deter- 
mined by comparatively slight adjustments or differences 
continued throughout the hatch. The common tendency 
to extremes in method must be avoided, whether applied 
to changes made during a single hatch, or" in successive 
hatches. 

In the case of pedigree hatching or where the chicks 
from different pens are to be hatched separately, the 
eggs, properly marked, may be mixed indiscriminately in 
the tray during incubation, but at the last turning they 
should be separated and placed in pedigree egg trays such 
as are supplied by the manufacturer, of the incubator, or 



in small wire baskets such as are shown in Figs. 65 and 
67. A still cheaper way is to use small bags of "mos- 
quito bar" like those shown in Fig. 66. With any of these 
appliances the eggs must not be crowded, but must have 
plenty of room — much more than is necessary in regular 
hatchings, or the chicks will not be able to get out prop- 
er!}' or will smother after they are out. If the trays are 
full of fertile eggs to be divided into different lots in 
this way, it will be necessary to have an empty machine 
warmed up and ready to help out at this time. It is use- 
less to attempt subdividing eggs in full trays unless this 
is done. Where pedigree hatching is practiced it is not 
possible to use the nursery of course, and more careful 
attention must be given to the chicks, removing and 
marking them when they are well dried, and transferring 
them to baskets or other warm comfortable quarters. 
They must not be kept too long in the close quarters in 
which they were hatched. 

When the eggs begin to pip or when the chicks are 
heard, which may be before pipping is observed, the ma- 
chine must be put in order for the hatch and arranged so 
that it will not need to be opened again until the hatch 
is over, or practically so. If it has a nursery compart- 
ment the trays should have the trap side turned to the 
front, though the trap is to be left closed until the hatch 
is well underway. If the thermometer is of the contact 
type or is fastened to a loose stand it should be perma- 
nently fastened in place so that it cannot be knocked 
over. If the machine is regulated properly there will be 
little danger of the temperature getting far out of the 
way at this time, but it always is desirable to have the 
thermometer in position to refer to. With the chicks 
coming cut lively, the temperature may run up to 104 or 
105 degrees, but this will do, no harm, and the regulator 
should not be interfered with unless the temperature 
goes above 105 degrees. 

In incubators with nursery compartments the chicks 
may be allowed to drop down after about one-third of 
them are out, but until then they should be kept up on 
the trays. Nurseries are always lower in temperature 
than the egg trays, and the chicks are liable to get chilled 
if they are allowed to drop down before they are dry, 
and before there are enough of them out to keep each 
other warm. Many epidemics of so-called "white diarrhea" 
are caused by the chicks getting chilled in the nursery. 
Always keep them up, therefore, until the hatch is at 
least one-third over, then open the trap and let them find 
their way down gradually. 

Avoid Overcrowding in the Nursery 
It seldom is necessary or desirable to disturb the 
chicks while they are coming off, and opening the door 
and fussing with them should be avoided. In case the 
hatch is extra good, however, it may be necessary to re- 
move some of the first chicks hatched, after they are 
thoroughly dry, in order to give the later ones a chance, 






CT~~~r\ 




aBsMJIMH! 



FIG. 67— CORN POPPERS USED IN PEDIGREE 

HATCHING 

Courtesy of American School of Poultry Husbandry. 



46 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



also to avoid injury to those that are out. If the machine 
is plainly overcrowded and the chicks are panting seri- 
ously (a little panting need not cause uneasiness), pro- 
vide a warmly lined basket or tray such as is shown in 
Fig. 80, and remove enough to relieve the congestion. If 
the chicks are carefully covered and placed in a warm 
place they will in no way be injured, and the conditions 
in the machine will be much better for the chicks that are 
left and for those that are not yet out. Where this is 
done however, it should be remembered that removing a 
large number of chicks is liable to result in lowering the 
temperature, and the regulator may need to be readjusted 
to keep it up to normal. 

In extra-good hatches, if none of the chicks are re- 
moved it will be necessary to throw the ventilators wide 
open, and possibly wedge the front door slightly open 
also, in order to supply sufficient air. It should be re- 
membered that the requirements of chicks are greatly 
in excess of unhatched embryos. This extra ventilation 
will save those that are already hatched, but may make it 
increasingly difficult for the later ones to get out, as 
it will lower the temperature and dry the air, causing 
the chicks to stick in the shell. It is a good deal better 
to relieve the situation by taking out some of the strong- 



When the incubator can be spared, it is better to 
leave the chicks in it for 24 hours, removing the trays as 
soon as hatching is over, to give the chicks more room 
and better air. At this time it generally is wise to give 
all the ventilation that the machine can supply. If the 
incubator must be reset at once the chicks can be taken 
out as soon as they are thoroughly dry and placed in 
baskets, trays, or day-old-chick shipping boxes, where 
they should remain for about 24 hours, or they can be 
taken directly from the incubator to the brooder if it is 
ready, thoroughly warmed, and regulated. 

Burn or bury all dead chicks, kill the cripples, if any, 
and include them in the burning, also the eggs that did 
not hatch. The empty shells, however, may be pounded 
up and fed to the laying hens. Clean and disinfect the 
machine thoroughly before resetting it. Brush out all 
dust and down, scrub the trays and burlap frames, if 
any, using a good disinfecting solution, with which also 
the entire inner surface of the machine should be sprayed 
or scrubbed. Any good coal tar disinfectant may be 
used for this purpose, or a home-made preparation if 
preferred. The regulator must be reset and the machine 
operated long enough to be sure that it is correctly ad- 
justed before it can be considered ready for next hatch. 



PURDUE UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION 

DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY 
.INCUBATOR REPORT 






Experiment No._ 


__Incubalor No.___ 


Dale 










Make. 






























Jac 


Date 


Hear 


Peaitioa 
•f 
Regu- 
lator: Up 
orDawa 


Chaares 

M.d< 
Railed 

Lewetod 


T«»r- 
stare 
ai Raaai 


Relative 

HaaiJitr 


Oil 

Coa- tl 
■a»ed ■* 


1 <z 
V 


J 


}J 


a 


u 
« 


J 
s 




p c 


c 
c 


i i 


! 1 


> c 
1 < 


> <: 

> - 


1 ► 




i >■ tare 
" « ' Added 


'eel Ilea 
al 
Vaal 


Vara 
T&d 


Wan 


1 

afl.au, 
Ceo.es 




























































































































1 

























































































































FTG. 68— A "WELL. PLANNED RECORD BLANK FOR THE INCUBATOR OPERATOR 
The temperature record on the sheet is kept by drawing a line from reading to reading-, giving a "curve" that 
shows in the plainest manner the fluctuations of temperature. The sheet — only a part of which is here shown — pro- 
vides for 23 numbers, three lines being allowed to each number. After figure 6 are the words "Test eggs first 
time," after 13, "Test eggs second time," after 20, "Note hour when first chick hatched," after 21, "Note hour when 
through hatching," after 23, "Date and hour when chicks were removed from machine." Below that are blanks for 
final report, as follows: 

* FINAL REPORT 



No. eggs put in 

No. eggs infertile 

No. eggs with dead germs 

No. eggs broken 

No. chicks dead in shell 

No. crippled chicks 

No. vigorous chicks 

Remarks: 

est, doing this as quickly as possible, however, without 
keeping the incubator door open long or permitting the 
chicks that are removed to get chilled. Those that are 
taken out in advance of the rest of the hatch must be 
kept covered (not too closely) and in a warm place. As 
a rule they will do better if treated in this way than 
when placed directly in a brooder, no matter how com- 
fortably it may be heated. 

Cleaning Up the Hatch 
When the hatch is about over the eggs should be ex- 
amined, and if any are covered by large sections of 
empty shells these should be removed to be sure that 
no chicks are thus imprisoned and prevented from get- 
ting out. If a few are stuck in the shells, they may be 
helped out. Chicks that are not able to get out without 
assistance seldom are worth bothering with, but there 
are sufficient exceptions to the rule to encourage some 
to give the little extra attention which may be suf- 
ficient to save them. The best'way to help chicks out of 
the shell is first to raise the temperature, which nearly 
always drops below normal when the chicks are practical- 
ly all out and down in the nursery. Then get the "stick- 
ers" together and cover them with a flannel cloth wrung 
out of water about as hot as the hands will stand it. Do 
not cover the eggs tightly, but lay a single thickness of 
cloth over them. If they have stuck on account of a 
lack of humidity in the machine this will enable them to 
get out. If their failure to hatch is due to actual weak- 
ness it is not worth while to do anything more for them, 
as they will not live even if they do get out. 



-Per cent fertile eggs to total ' eggs - 

-Per cent dead germs to fertile eggs - 

-Per cent dead-in-shell to fertile eggs - 

-Per cent crippled chicks to fertile eggs - 

-Per cent vigorous chicks to fertile eggs — 

-Per cent vigorous chicks to total eggs - 

-Per cent vigorous chicks to egg in machine 
after second test — 



Day-to-Day Details of Incubator Operation 

By way of putting the everyday details of incubator 
management in simple consecutive order, the following 
daily schedule is suggested. With such a definite schedule 
before him the beginner will be able to plan ahead a lit- 
tle and to know what is coming before he reaches it. In 
this schedule it is assumed that the hatch will be so 
handled as to have it come off on the morning of the 
twenty-first day. If for any reason the hatch is earlier 
or later than this the details of operation must be modi- 
fied accordingly. 

First Day — Set the machine in the forenoon, adjusting 
the ventilation exactly as directed by the manufacturer. 
Always test new thermometers before using them, and 
old ones at the beginning of each season. If a suspended 
thermometer is used, measure the distance between the 
bulb and the bottom of the egg tray, and if this is not 
as the manufacturer says it should be, stop right there 
until the error is corrected. Do not go to bed the first 
night until certain that the temperature is stationary at 
the right point. Sometimes the thermometer will regis- 
ter accurately for days with the machine running empty, 
but when the eggs are put in it may run up a little. 

Second Day — Look at the thermometer a few times 
and fill and trim the lamp in the evening, doing this, if 
possible, about six or seven o'clock, so that when the 
last inspection for the day is made at bedtime the final 
adjustment of the flame can be safely made for the night. 
If there is reason to believe that the room temperature 
will drop much, turn the flame a little higher than would 






OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 



47 



be necessary to maintain the temperature at time of 
adjustment, depending on the regulator to take care of 
the surplus heat until it is needed along towards morning. 

Third Day — Turn the eggs in the morning, and put 
them back into the machine without any unnecessary de- 
lay. From this time on turn regularly morning and night 
till the chicks begin to pip. 

Fourth and Fifth Days — No special attention required 
on these days aside from the regular daily care. 

Sixth Day — This is the best time for testing when the 
machine is filled in the regular way with either white 
or brown-shelled eggs, especially if the eggs are to be 
weighed to determine the percentage of evaporation. 
Eggs with rings around the embryos are dead, the cause 
being either weak germs, or too high temperature in the 
machine. Take out the infertiles and feed them to young 



rect mistakes along these lines if not too serious. If the 
hatch is progressing as it should, it will do no harm to 
begin cooling down once a day, even if the weather is 
cool, unless there is reason to believe that the germs are 
a little behind in development, in which case do no cool- 
ing at all. Never cool more than once a day under ordi- 
nary conditions. 

Thirteenth to Seventeenth Days — Nothing but regu- 
lar duties for these days, but watch for the temperature 
to creep up as animal heat increases and readjust the 
regulator accordingly. Test a few eggs every day to 
keep in touch with the development of the embryos. 

Eighteenth Day — This is about the last chance to 
correct any conditions that may need attention. Test 
the eggs again, unless the chicks can be heard peeping in 
the shell or some of the eggs are pipped. If appearance 



INCUBATOR RECORD 



Incirator No Make Size .. 



Date Set 



Op.servkr. 



















TEMPERATURE 


OF INCUBATOR 






















Date 

Day of 
Incubation 





1 


2 


3 


i 


5 


C 


_ 


8 


9. 


10 


11- 


12 


i:i 


14 


15 


16 


. 17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


Morning 
















































Noon 




























\.... 





















































































TEMPERATURE OF ROOM 










































' 










1 














Noon 
















































Evening 












...'... 










I 


1 ■ ' ■ 























HUMIDITY OF INCUBATOR 



Morning — 
Noon 

EVENING 












■■- 


■=:|~ 

































HUMIDITY, OF ROOM 



Morning 

Noon 

Evening 




••■ 


































.... 











EGGS COOLED— MINUTES 



FERTILITY AND HATCHABILITY 



NO. SCT INF. 


FEHT. 


'I FEHT. 1 DEAD 

! 1ST TEST 


DEAD 
2ND TEST 


DEAD 
3RD TEST 


DEAD 

HATCH 


CRIPPLED 
CHICKS 


EGGS 
BROKEN 


STRONG 
CHICKS 








I 

















FIG. 69— COMPLETE HATCHING AND BREEDING RECORD AS USED AT OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY 
Incubator operators who keep accurate records as are provided for on this sample blank, will have at the end 
of the hatching' season information in regard to their hatching and brooding operations that should prove invaluable 
to them. Record keeping requires some time and attention, but the operator will be amply repaid for his pains by the 
better and more certain results that he will be able to secure. 

chicks or adult hens. They are just as good for the 
fowls as so much meat scrap. 

Seventh Day — In mild weather begin cooling now, 
leaving the eggs out until they are lukewarm — that is, 
neither warm nor cold to the touch. In warm weather 
leave them out about 10 minutes and then return them to 
the machine whether they are lukewarm or not. 

Eighth and Ninth Days — No special attention aside 
from cooling and regular daily care. 

Tenth and Eleventh Days — About this time, if the 
embryos are developing as they should, look for the tem- 
perature to run up a little. This is due to the increasing 
animal heat in the egg, and the regulator must be changed 
to take care of it. Turning the flame a little lower will 
not answer. From this time on it will be necessary to 
be on the watch for rising temperature and readjust the 
regulator from time to time to take care of it. 

Twelfth Day — Weigh the eggs or test them, to de- 
termine whether they are drying down as they should; 
also note whether the germs are developing properly. If 
too much ventilation has been given, begin supplying 
moisture according to the book of directions that accom- 
panies the machine. If the air cells are too small, give 
more ventilation, and if the germs are a little behind in 
development, increase the heat. There is time yet to cor- 



of the embryos as observed through the tester, indicates 
that the temperature or ventilation has not been cor- 
rect, a little can be done to remedy matters, but not 
much. It is unwise to attempt to make any marked 
change at this time. 

Nineteenth Day — Turn as usual, if there are no chicks 
pipping, but do no more cooling. Turn the eggs and get 
them back into the machine as quickly as possible. If 
pipping has begun, do not disturb the eggs at all, but be 
sure that the trap in the egg tray is next the door. 

Twentieth Day — The chicks should be coming out 
briskly about the end of the twentieth day. Keep the 
flame up to normal and don't worry about the tempera- 
ture. If the machine has a nursery compartment do not 
open the trap to let the chicks down until at least a 
third of them are out. 

Twenty-First Day — The chicks should be all out and 
down in the nursery dry, before the end of the 21st day. 
If they are a little late coming out give them more time. 
Chicks may be lively and strong even if a day late, though 
generally they are not. As soon as the chicks are all 
out remove the trays to give them more room. Clean up 
the incubator as soon as the chicks are taken out and 
thoroughly disinfect it, whether it is to be reset at 
once or not. 



CH APTE R VI 



Mistakes in Artificial Incubating 



Common Mistakes Made in Buying, Setting Up and Operating Incubators— Mistakes Made in Taking Off the Hatch — 

Special Details of Operation That Should Prove Helpful to All Incubator Users 

in Preventing Serious Errors and the Losses Occasioned by Them 







UCCESSFUL operation of incubators is a com- 
paratively simple and easy matter as long as the 
beginner confines himself to the general direc- 
tions accompanying his machine, coupling with 
these a careful consideration of the detailed information 
in Chapter V. of this book, which is designed to meet 
special conditions and to make it possible for the operator, 
however inexperienced, to have an intelligent under- 
standing of the reasons for doing or not doing certain 
things, rather than blindly to "follow directions." As a 
rule, trouble is experienced only when the operator com- 
mences to experiment, to listen to the suggestions of 
local advisers who have had little or no experience with 
his particular type of machine, or to indulge in the com- 
mon practice of "taking chances" and "cutting corners." 
It is not the purpose of this chapter to try to point 
out all the mistakes that the beginner may make, when 
he embarks upon this course. That would be an endless 
task. It is much simpler and easier to learn the few, 
essential details of correct operation than to attempt to 
learn the innumerable incorrect practices that must be 
avoided. Experience has shown however, that there are 
some particular errors into which the beginner is very 
apt to fall, even when trying hard to do things right, 
and to these it seems that some special attention should 
be paid or added emphasis be given regarding their dan- 
ger, even though they may already have been mentioned 
briefly in the preceding chapter. 

Getting the Incubator Too Late in the Season 
The best and most profitable chicks, and generally 
the easiest ones to raise, are those that are hatched 
early. For this reason the incubator should be on hand 
well in advance of the time when it will be needed. There 
aie almost certain to be delays in getting the incubator 
if it is ordered direct from the manufacturer during the 
busy season. If bought from an agent he may not have 
the right kind or size in stock unless arrangements have 
been made well in advance. There may be some missing 
or broken parts when the machine is uncrated, or vari- 
ous things may happen to interfere with getting it set 
up and properly adjusted. 

All of these possible sources of delay should be con- 




PIG. 70— A "PAIR" HATCH 

The difference between a fair hatch and a 
first-class one, such as is Illustrated In Fig. 71, 
is chieflv a matter of careful attention to details 
all along the line from the selection of the fowls 
in the breeding pen to the management of the 
incubator. 



sidered, and discounted by ordering in ample time. One 
of the commonest causes of disappointment and loss 
among beginners is this delay in getting the machine and 
the consequent haste to get it started which results in 
setting it before it is properly adjusted, or without giving 
it a thorough preliminary tryout. Keeping the eggs wait- 
ing while the empty machine is being tested and adjusted, 
appears to be too much for the average person's self- 
control. Avoid this danger by getting the machine early. 

Failure to Set Up and Adjust Correctly 

A surprisingly large number of persons fail to meet 
the conditions of success in this obviously important de- 
tail. Some do not read the instructions in regard to set- 
ting up, and try to "puzzle out" for themselves the use 
and location of parts, the assembling of which is fully 
explained in the directions that accompany the machine 
and on whose exact adjustments its proper working de- 
pends. Many do not read the description of the machine 
with sufficient care to know whether it is set up right or 
not. And others may even know that it is not correctly 
adjusted but blindly hope to operate it successfully 
any way. 

The various parts of the incubator MUST be con- 
nected up properly and adjusted to work exactly as they 
should, or trouble is bound to ensue. This is not a thing 
that should call for argument or explanation; it is an 
imperative requirement. It is not necessary to take 
chances or to guess, and there is no excuse for doing so. 
The operator can readily know whether his machine is 
set up correctly or not, and unless he does know this be- 
fore placing eggs in it he has only himself to blame if 
results are not satisfactory. 

Locating Incubator Where Ventilation is Poor 

It is useless to expect good results if the machine is 
located where ventilation is deficient and where lamp 
fumes cannot be got rid of. A cellar with tightly closed 
doors and with the windows banked to keep things from 
freezing, also rooms that are small and close, are not 
suitable locations for incubators. The actual require- 
ments of the embryos for fresh air are quite small, but 
the incubator lamp uses a great deal of oxygen in a day's 



I 

! 
1 


^Jt 


^ 








rV 





PIG. 71— AN EXCELLENT HATCH 

There is no mystery and but little "luck" 
about getting good hatches. The careful, pains- 
taking operator with a standard machine and 
good eggs can regularly get large hatches, and 
his profits will be much greater than with the 
merely "fair" kind such as shown in Fig. 70. 



18 



MISTAKES IX ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING 



49 




FIG. 72. 

A SIMPLE EGG 

TESTER 



time and gives off a large volume of poisonous fumes 
which are certain to cause trouble unless ventilation is 
free enough to reduce the proportion of lamp fumes to a 
harmless percentage. Incubators can bo operated in com- 
paratively small rooms or where there is only a limited 
amount of ventilation if the lamp 
fumes are conducted out of the room 
by means of suitable pipes. 

Operating Without Instructions 

This mistake is especially common 
among those who purchase used or 
second-hand incubators with which 
they have had no previous experi- 
ence, and attempt to run them with- 
out the manufacturer's book of direc- 
tions. Xo matter how successful the 
operator may have been with other 
makes he needs the manufacturer's in- 
structions for each type of machine used, and it is sim- 
ply inviting trouble to attempt to operate without them. 
Xo one need hesitate to write to the manufacurer for 
directions, when these are missing for any reason, and if 
a charge is made for supplying them the sum demanded 
will be but a small one and should be cheerfully paid. 

Irregular Hours for the Work 

There should be regular hours for caring for the 
machine, morning and evening, and these should be rig- 
idly adhered to. The two peiiods should divide the day 
as evenly as possible without interfering with other 
duties. A good time in the evening is just before or 
after supper. At this time the eggs should be turned and 
the lamp filled and trimmed, giving time for the eggs to 
get warmed up before the last visit at bedtime, when the 
flame can be finally adjusted for the night. In the morn- 
ing there will be nothing to do but turn the eggs, as a 
rule, and if the thermometer is looked at again at noon 
there will be little danger of the temperature getting 
much out of the way between times. 

Lack of Conveniences for the Work 
Wherever the machine is located, it pays to fix things 
up conveniently for doing the work. The chief function 
of the incubator is to save time, either directly or in 
directly, and the practical operator will try to save all 
he can by installing suitable facilities for tending it. If 
the machine is of the type that does not have a clear top 



on which to place the trays, provide a table or large box 
of proper height. If the eggs are turned by shuffling, the 
small tray illustrated in Fig. 52 will be found a real nec- 
essity. Arrange a convenient place for the oil can and 
a funnel for filling the lamp, and do this work over a 
small box or pan containing planer shavings or other ab- 
sorbent material so that if any oil is spilled it will not 
soil anything or saturate the- floor. It is much more 
convenient to use an oil can with a faucet in the bottom, 
than one from which the oil must be poured. 

Using Undesirable Eggs 

One of the reasons why the sitting hen often has 
more chicks to her credit proportionately than the incu- 
bator is that when there are only a few eggs to be set 
they are carefully selected and only the ones that are 
most suitable for the purpose are used. In filling incu- 
bators however, especially when there is room in the 
machine for the entire available supply, many eggs are 
used that cannot possibly hatch. All eggs that are ab- 
normally large or small, or that are rough, thin-shelled 
or otherwise defective, such as those having spiral marks 
(see Fig. 57), transparent spots, etc., should be discarded, 
even if it is necessary to operate the machine with the 
trays partially filled. It is better to waste space than eggs. 

Flame Too High 

When leaving the machine for the night the flame 
ordinarily should be *urned high enough to provide an 
excess of heat that will hold the damper open a little — 
usually about one-eighth of an inch, though this will de- 
pend somewhat on the style of machine. With this ex- 
cess heat the regulator can take care of a sudden drop 
in the temperature or if it should get warmer instead, 
will still be able to dispose of the extra heat without 
trouble. Too much should not be demanded of any reg- 
ulator, however. This delicate device as made for prac- 
tically all standard machines is remarkably efficient, but 
should not be expected to control wide extremes in tem- 
perature. When the flame is turned entirely too high 
the surplus heat will exceed the regulator's capacity to 
divert or waste it, resulting in the egg chamber becom- 
ing overheated, and this may happen with the finest reg- 
ulator made. Another objection to an extremely high 
flame is that it is a wasteful use of fuel, adding unneces- 
sarily to the cost of operating the machine: also, with 
a high flame the danger of a smoking or overheated lamp 
is greatly increased. 




FIG. 73— HOW TO TRIM 
LAMP WICKS 
The corner? of the wick must 
be rounded oft as here indi- 
cated, to get an ideal flame. 
Wicks will burn this way nat- 
urally with a little attention. 




FIG. 74— IDEAL LAMP FLAME 
Flame shaped as here illus- 
trated will give the greatest 
amount of heat and may be 
turned quite high without dan- 
ger of smoking. Such a flame 
is secured by trimminp the 
wick as shown in Flgf. 73. 



1 


"V-. 


h 




\ 


§VV; 


~~<d 




f&yZ 


















■^ =z 





FIG. 75— IMPROPER TRIM- 
MING OF WICKS 

If the corners of the wicks 
are not properly rounded off, 
the flame will be sharp cor- 
nered and will smoke and form 
dangerous deposits of soot. 
Such a flame will supply com- 
paratively little heat. 



50 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



Flame Too Low 

With a low flame there will not be sufficient heat to 
keep the temperature up to the desired point if there 
should be a marked drop in the room temperature, which 
is especially apt to occur during the night. Unless there 
is a certainty of ?. rising 
temperature there should al- 
ways be some surplus heat. 
In a good cellar, and with a 
well -insulated machine, it 
often is possible to run 
through an entire hatch 
without any special adjust- 
ment of the flame, the reg- 
ulator being depended on to 
take care of all variations in 
temperature that may arise. 
In above-ground rooms 
where the temperature fluc- 
tuates widely from day to 
day, and with imperfectly in- 
sulated machines, frequent 
readjustments of the flame 
will be required. 

Making Changes in Equip- 
ment of Incubator 

A good deal of trouble 
grows out of the too com- 
mon practice of making 
changes in the equipment of 
the machine, or using non- 
standard parts, such as ther- 
mometers, lamps, burners, 
diaphragms, etc. Sometimes 
this is done as a matter of 
convenience, the regular 
parts not being at hand, and 
sometimes merely to save a 
few pennies when the stand- 
ard parts happen to cost a 
trifle more than substitutes. 

This practice is usually a most short-sighted kind of 
economy, the losses in a single hatch often amounting to 
more than the entire cost of every regular part needing 
replacement. 

It is safe to assume that the manufacturer has chosen 
the equipment for his machine with the greatest care, and 
after most expensive tests. He often has good reasons 
for using certain articles, and it is the part of wisdom 

to take advant- 
age of the other 
fellow's experi- 
ence. Especially 
in the case of 
incubators using 
d i a p h ragms, it 
ought not to be 
necessary to 
explain that 
the manufacturer 
uses certain ma- 
terials because he 
finds it import- 
ant to do so, 
FIG. 77-HYGROMETER an( j the substitu . 

This instrument is used in measur- . 
ing the degree of humidity in the egg- tion of Other 
chamber. Courtesy of Taylor Instru- r u : having dif- 
ment Companies. laDric naving an 



in highly unsatisfactory 




KEROSENE LAMP AND PASTEBOARD 
BOX FOR EGG TESTING 
Anyone who has a small handlamp can readily ar- 
range a homemade tester in the manner here indicated. 
Provide a good-sized opening in the lid (on the back) to 
admit air to lamp, and at top to let hot air escape. Re- 
produced from Bui. 172 of Oregon Exp. Station. 




ferent properties, may result 

results. 

Using Untested Thermometers 
The average incubator thermometer is accurate and 

reliable, but there are enough of the other sort to make 

it important that every one 
be tested before being placed 
in active service. Once in a 
while a defective thermome- 
ter may get past the in- 
spector; still more frequent- 
ly they are damaged in ship- 
ment through the breaking 
or separating of the mer- 
cury column in the tubes, 
and any thermometer that 
has stood for some months 
is apt to change through the 
seasoning of the glass. Take 
no chances, but be sure that 
the thermometer registers 
correctly before starting the 
hatch. 

Thermometer Not in Correct 
Position 

A great deal depends up- 
on having the thermometer 
in the position in which it is 
designed to be operated, and 
as there are several types 
with directions necessarily 
modified for each, there is 
more or less confusion here. 
A suspended thermometer is 
intended to hang with the 
bulb at a certain specified 
distance from the bottom of 
the egg tray. If the wrong 
hanger is used or it is not 
hooked properly in place the 
bulb may be too low or too 
high, the wrong temperature at the egg level being se- 
cured in either case. Such thermometers are apt to be 
pushed up when the trays are removed or replaced, and 
if they do not swing freely may remain in this position 
and, of course, will 
not then register 
correctly. It is im- 
material what style 
is used, provided 
the thermometer 
is operated in the 
position intended 
and the tempera- 
ture adjusted ac- 
cordingly. 

Contact ther- 
mometers can be 
placed with the 
bulb on top of an 
egg, but are more 
apt to slip down 
so that they rest 
between two eggs FIG 78— ELECTRIC LIGHT~ AND 
and touching both, PASTEBOARD BOX USED AS 

With a correspond- AN EGG TESTER 

ino- HiffVrpnrp in Reproduced from Bui. 172 of Oregon 
ing ainerence in Experiment Station 




MISTAKES IN ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING 



51 



temperature. There also are three distinct positions for 
standing thermometers; between and touching two eggs; 
on a level with top of egg but not touching; half an 
inch above top of egg. There may be as much as two 
degrees difference in the reading of the thermometers in 
these different positions — which fact ought to make it 
clear that the manufacturer's directions and the partic- 
ular style of thermometer for which the directions are 
given, should be rigidly adhered to. 

Too High Temperature At Start 

It is quite important to avoid too high temperatures 
at the beginning of the incubation period. The practice 
of starting at a relatively low temperature and gradually 
increasing as the hatch progresses, has the indorsement 
of most practical operators, where contact or low stand- 
ing thermometers are used. There is no question about 
the fact that the embryo is much more apt to be injured 
by high temperatures during the first few days, and if the 
incubator cannot be depended upon to maintain exactly 
the desired temperature it is better to be on the safe 
side by running a trifle low. But do not forget that any 
departure from the correct temperature, either high or 

low, must be offset by an 
equivalent increase or de- 
crease later on. 

Failure to Average the 

Temperature 
Attention has been called 
in the preceding chapter to 
the error that the careful 
operator is liable to fall in- 
to, of regarding the normal 
incubation temperature a s 
the maximum rather than 
the average which he should 
secure. This results in many 
persons 'habitually running a 
little below the proper tem- 
perature, or while they may 
hold to the exact tempera- 
ture, as a rule (103 degrees for example), they are slower 
about correcting the temperature when it falls below that 
point than when it happens to exceed it, and in any case 
they fail to offset low temperatures by running corres- 
pondingly higher later on. Either way the practical re- 
sult is an average temperature just that much below the 
correct one, which means a delayed hatch. This is one 
of the principal reasons why most hatches made by be- 
ginners are slow in coming off, often disastrously so. 
There is danger in high temperatures, it is true, but the 
cumulative effect of running a trifle below normal for 
long periods, may prove to be just as unfavorable in 
the final result. 

Failure to Adjust for Animal Heat 
If there were no animal heat generated by the de- 
veloping embryo, any good incubator favorably located 
and properly adjusted should run through the hatch 
without the slightest variation. As the embryo develops 
however, it begins to generate heat, and about the tenth 
day the thermometer is liable to take a jump upward as 
a result of this. This rise is not as sudden as it appears, 
but it takes close watching to detect it at first and the 
average operator is apt to be conscious of it for the 
first time when he finds the thermometer running a de- 
gree or so above what it should be. The animal heat will 
continue to increase in a normal hatch right up to the 




FIG. 79— EGG CARTON 
SUITABLE FOR 
KEEPING HATCH- 
ING EGGS 




FIG. 80— BOX FOR MOVING CHICKS FROM INCU- 

CUBATOR 

Photo from Cornell University. 

end, and must be taken care of by readjusting the regu- 
lator as often as necessary. 

Failure to Test the Eggs 

The beginner may find it difficult to learn much at 
first about the development of the embryo, but if he will 
persist in using the tester, examining all the eggs at reg- 
ular periods as directed in the previous chapter, and mak- 
ing almost daily tests with a few, he will find that it is 
possible to follow the growth of the embryos with a good 
degree of certainty, and the ability to do this will prove 
of great value to him if he is going to produce chicks in 
large numbers. It is scarcely worth while to go through 
the motions of being a chick raiser if such opportunities 
for making oneself proficient in the work are to be 
ignored or neglected. 

Failure to Examine Eggs During the Hatch 

The beginner can make no better use of some of the 
eggs in his first hatches than to break a few for exam- 
ination from time to time during the hatch, after first 
having examined them through the tester. Do this not 
only with infertile eggs and dead germs, but with some 
containing live germs also. It may be possible to get 
good hatches without having a clear understanding of 
how normal incubation progresses, but the chances of uni- 
form success are greatly improved by such knowledge, 
and no earnest operator will neglect any reasonable op- 
portunity to learn 
all that he can. 
A few living 
embryos sacri- 
ficed in this way 
will be repaid a 
hundred times 
over in the bet- 
ter hatches real- 
ized later on. It 
will prove espec- 
ially helpful if, 
in doing this, a 
careful record is 
kept of the ap- 
pearance of the 
embryos at dif- 
ferent stages of 
incubation, both 
before the tester 
and when the 
shells are broken. 



Neglecting the 
Lamp 




CASE OF HATCHING 
EGGS 
Where egg-s in large number are to 
be held for hatching, about the most 
When the lamp convenient way of handling- them is 
. , .to put them in regular shipping casts. 

has been running So packed they will be protected from 
alnno- for c»vor,l evaporation, mold, etc., and can readily 
aiong tor several be curned if necessary. 



52 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 







days without any irregularity, as incubator lamps often 
will do, the beginner is apt to feel that he can safely take 
some liberties with it, such as letting it run an extra 
day without filling, omitting to trim the wick, neglect 
ing to wipe the oil off the top of the lamp bowl, etc. It 
is just this slacking up in care that makes nine-tenths of 
all lamp troubles. The work of caring for the lamp 

.should be arranged 
in a regular sched- 
ule, to be followed 
day after day with 
unfailing regularity. 
With a lamp bowl 

of sufficient size it 

FIG. 82— SUSPENDED THERMOM- .„ . , 

ETER will not be neces- 

Designed to be suspended by a sary to fill it every 
■wire loop and as a rule is located a~„ r. r P -.T P n swrv 
with the bulb about one-half inch aay ' or even evcl ^ 
above the top of the eggs. Courtesy other day; but there 
of Taylor Instrument Companies. , , 

must be some reg- 
ular period for doing so, otherwise it is only a matter of 
time until it will be neglected one day too long and a 
spoiled hatch may be the result. 

Importance of Daily Trimming 

With practically all oil-burning lamps, the wick must 
be trimmed every day, and in cold weather it often is 
necessary to trim twice a day. It is never safe to let 
the wick get covered with a heavy scale. Especiall}' 
where low-grade oil 'is used, a heavy scale or char will 
cover the end of the wick and the air tube in a com- 
paratively short time, and an attempt to adjust the flame 
with the wick in this condition is liable to result in a 
smoking flame. It does not require much attention to 
keep the wick clean and the flame burning brightly, and 
failure to do this is inexcusable. 

Using Defective Burners 

The average brass burner is made of pretty thin ma- 
terial and is easily bent out of shape. It requires but 
a small dent in the top of the burner or in the wick tube, 
to make the flame burn unevenly or to have the wick 
stick or drag on one side. Do not try to repair burners 




FIG. 83 — STANDING INCUBATOR 
THERMOMETER 
This thermometer is arranged to 
hold the bulb at the level of the top 
of the egg. Courtesy of Taylor In- 
strument Companies. 



that are seriously damaged. They are not expensive, and 
it is cheaper to buy new ones than to take chances with 
an old one that is not working right. Tn all cases of 
smoky lamps the burner should be carefully examined. 

Extra Parts Should Be Kept On Hand 
One of the most • common and least excusable mis- 
takes made by beginners is failure to keep a supply of 
extra parts on hand for emergencies. It costs only a 
small sum to provide an extra thermometer, a burner, a 
lamp bowl, a few wicks, and an extra set of cloth dia- 
phragms for machines requiring them. It is a good 
plan to have an extra connecting rod for the regulator, 



also, and a wafer for the thermostat if the machine uses 
that type of regulator. With these extras on hand there 
will be no danger of spoiling a hatch while waiting for 
a new part to replace one that has been accidentally 
broken or otherwise damaged. 

Turning the Eggs Must Not Be Neglected 

From the time turning begins until it is discontinued 
the eggs should be turned twice daily. Not once, nor 
three times, nor now and then, but twice, and at regular 
hours. Nothing should be allowed to interfere with this. 
More frequent turning will do no harm, it is true, and 
in warm weather, when the circulation of air in the 
machine is liable to be sluggish it may prove decidedly 
helpful. But under all ordinary conditions twice a day 
is sufficient, and regularity is about as important as the 
turning itself. 

Turning Eggs With Oily Fingers 

A very little kerosene on the shell will kill the 
embryo and fingers that are oily from handling the lamp 
will soon supply enough to do this. It usually is most 
convenient to turn the eggs in the evening at the time 




FIG. 84— INCREASING CAPACITY OF EGG TRAYS 
The special tray shown above, which is in regular use on 
Hollywood Poultry Farm, Washington, illustrates a practical 
method of increasing incubator capacity by keeping the 
eggs at an incline of about forty degrees instead of laying 
them flat on the tray. By doing this the number of eggs 
that can be placed in the tray is increased nearly twenty 
per cent. The eggs are kept in this position until the last 
turning, when they are transferred to the regular wire- 
bottom trays for the hatch. Eggs in these special trays are 
quickly turned, simply slanting them in the other direction. 

the lamp is filled and trimmed, and to be on the safe side 
it is advisable to make it a rule always to turn the eggs 
before the lamp is touched. 

Too Much Cooling of Eggs 

Many operators seriously reduce the percentage of 
their hatch by overcooling the eggs. It does not seem to 
matter greatly whether eggs are cooled or not during in- 
cubation when the proper temperature is maintained. With- 
out doubt however, cooling is an advantage where the eggs 
have been exposed to too high temperatures or where the 
average temperature is running above normal, thus caus- 
ing the embryo to develop too rapidly. Be very careful 
however not to overcool, but return the eggs to the ma- 
chine just as soon as they feel lukewarm. 

Neglecting to Turn and Shift the Trays 

The trays should be turned end for end each day 
and if there are two trays in the machine they should be 
shifted from side to side daily. There is no machine 
made that will not show some variation in temperature 
in different parts of the egg chamber, and some of them 
show a good deal. If this variation is not too great, and 
if the trays are turned and shifted as suggested, the in- 
equality will be equalized and the eggs should hatch uni- 
formity in all parts of the machine. 

Opening the Door After the Chicks Begin to Hatch 

Opening the incubator door causes changes in tem- 
perature, moisture, etc., in the egg 4>iamber, and should 
be avoided as far as possible. With a little forethought 



MISTAKES IX ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING 



53 




PIG. 85— STANDARD-BRED PEN OF WHITE 
WYANDOTTES 
To secure hatching eggs of uniform character — an im- 
portant factor in successful incubation — the fowls that lay 
the eggs must be uniform in breeding. With high-class 
standard-bred fowls like the pen illustrated above, good 
results are practically insured. This pen of White Wyan- 
dottcs won first prize at Madison Square in 1919, and is the 
property of J. S. Martin. 

everything that will need to be done from the time the 
chicks begin to pip until they are practically all out 
can be attended to at the last turning. At this time, 
if the machine has a nursery the trays should be placed 
with the traps next the door. If moisture is to be sup- 
plied during the hatch, the thermometer fastened in posi- 
tion so that it cannot be overturned by the chicks, or any 
other changes made, now is the time to attend to it. Then 
when the chicks begin to pip the door can be shut and 
the chicks left alone. 

Get the Chicks All Out 

As contrasted with the person who is so anxious to 
help that he does much harm by untimely interference, 
there is the other extreme in the operator who leaves 
the chicks entirely to themselves, in the belief that any 
that cannot get out without help are not worth saving. 
This is true when the inability to get out is due to in- 
herent weakness, but not when the chick sticks for some 
purely accidental reason. It often happens that some fail 
to get out for some simple reason, though they would 
live and grow as well as any of their fellows if they could 
have a little timely assistance. The practical incubator 
operator will see to it that if any are stuck in the shell 
toward the end of the hatch, they have a chance for their 
lives, supplying some added moisture or heat or possibly 
helping them to break the shells. 

Overcrowding in the Incubator 
The average incubator does not have sufficient room 
for all the chicks that can be hatched in it if the trays 
are practically full of fertile eggs and they nearly all 
hatch. A chick requires more room than the egg from 
which it comes and when an extra good hatch is secured 
they are liable to be overcrowded. It is highly injurious 
for chicks to be packed in the incubator to the point 
where they become overheated, and half suffocated, and 
when there is danger of this condition existing it is nec- 
essary to remove some of the first arrivals. It is better 



to do this than to try to afford relief by excessive venti- 
lation which will dry out the air and make it impossible 
for the last chicks to hatch at all. 

Taking Chicks Out Too Soon 

Removing the chicks from the incubator as soon as 
hatched may be necessary for the reasons already sug- 
gested, but this step should be regarded as the lesser 
of two evils and should be taken with great care. Never 
do it unless it is clearly necessary. There is no better 
place for chicks the first day after hatching than in the 
nursery of the incubator. In any event, never take chicks 
from the machine that are not thoroughly dry, and do not 
remove too many at one time. As soon as the hatch is 
over and the chicks dry the trays should be removed, 
which will give the chicks more room and better air, and 
then supply all the ventilation possible. If the regular 
ventilation of the machine is not sufficient to keep the 
chicks from panting, wedge the door open — but be gov- 
erned in this by the instructions of the manufacturer. 
Some machines are apt to be drafty with the door open. 

Letting the Chicks Get Chilled in Moving Them 

In removing chicks from the incubator, extreme pre- 
cautions must be taken to prevent their getting chilled, 
which may happen even in comparatively warm weather. 
Directions for taking off the hatch are given in the pre- 
ceding chapter and these instructions should be carefully 
followed. In cold rooms, only a few should be taken out 
at one time, not only for their own sake but for the pro- 
tection of those left in the machine, as the temperature 
will drop quickly when the door is open. If the brooder 
is not ready, or if it does not have a reliable regulator, it 
will be better to leave the chicks in a basket or in day- 
old-chick boxes for a day or so. If they are kept in a 
warm place they will be comfortable and will get hard- 
ened a little before they are transferred to the brooder. 

Leaving the Machine Without Cleaning 

Immediately after the hatch is taken off the machine 
should be thoroughly cleaned, whether another hatch is 
to be started at once or not. Never store a machine away 
at the end of the season until it is cleaned and disinfected. 
Empty the lamp bowl, throw away the old wick and put 
a new one in the burner, and if there are any parts on 
top of the machine that are liable to be disturbed, such 
as regulator arm, connecting rod, etc., these should be 
removed and placed inside the machine. Then it will be 
in condition to go over to the next season without suffer- 
ing any injury, and be ready for use again on short notice. 

The Biggest Mistake of All 
Right here, after all serious mistakes of the incuba- 
tion period have been successively avoided and a big 
hatch of sturdy, vigorous chicks secured, the biggest 
mistake of all often is made. This is the failure to pro- 
vide suitable brooding facilities for the chicks. By "suit- 
able" is meant a brooder that is well made, that will sup- 
ply enough heat to keep the chicks warm under any con- 
dition that must be met, that can be regulated with a 
good degree of accuracy, and that provides sufficient 
capacity to brood the chicks without crowding. It is use- 
less to hatch chicks at all unless they can be kept under 
reasonably favorable conditions afterwards. Poor brood- 
ers, or not enough of them, cause the loss of enormous 
numbers of chicks every season. Whatever other mis- 
takes are made, at least let somebody else make this 0:1c. 




FIG. S6.— EGGS OF NORMAL SIZE ARE BEST FOR HATCHING 

Eggs that are of good average size, weighing two ounces each or over, and of idea 1 egg shape, will 
hatch much better than eggs that are abnormal, either in size or shape. 



CHAPTER VII 



Day-Old Chicks and Custom Hatching 

Origin and Development of This Unique Industry— Who Should Hatch Day-Old Chicks and Who Should Buy Them 
— Hatching With Lamp-Heated Incubators Profitable as Well as With Mammoth Machines — How to Build ; 

Up a Profitable Business in Custom Hatching. 



Q 



RODUCTION of day-old chicks has developed in- 
to a great industry within a comparatively short 
space of time, and countless "hatcheries" have been 
established in all parts of the country, ranging in 
size from the modest and inexpensive home "plant" of a 
few lamp-heated incubators in the house cellar, to cor- 
porations operating batteries of huge mammoth incuba- 
tors, each with a capacity of many thousands of eggs. 

The following historical summary of the development 
of this industry was prepared by Herbert H. Knapp, 
president of the International Baby Chick Association. 
Writing in 1918, he says: 

"It has been just twenty-six years since Joseph D. 
Wilson, of Stockton, N. J., sent 50 baby chicks from 
Stockton to Chicago. After he was satisfied that chicks 
could be sent successfully on long trips without being fed, 
he undertook to advertise this fact and solicited business, 
believing he had made a 
great discovery, though his 
hopes fell somewhat, when 
he was visited by a post- 
office inspector and accused 
of using the mails for fradu- 
lent purposes. 

"Mr. Wilson, however, 
continued his experiments 
undaunted. He shipped to 
nearby points, gradually 
reaching out and extending 
his business until no one 
could accuse him of adver- 
tising a fraud. His cus- 
tomers were living witnesses 
that the shipping of baby 
chicks was a success. They 
bought from h i m season 
after season. They didn't 
want to hatch their own 
chicks. Wilson's chicks grew 

even better than the ones they hatched themselves. They 
didn't know why, but the fact remained. Now we know 
that it was because they did not get that dose of wet 
cornmeal the day they were hatched. While they were 
absorbing the food nature had provided for the first two 
or three days (the yolk of the egg) they could be car- 
ried many miles from the place of birth. In truth, every 
hour of the trip they were getting larger and stronger. 
"While they were resting comfortably in a well- 
ventilated box they could not be pampered and overfed 
by an over-solicitious owner during those first two or 
three important days of their lives. The hen that steals 
her nest, hatches chicks and is not discovered for two or 
three days invariably raises more and hardier chicks than 
the one carefully attended and whose chicks are promptly 
fed as soon as they hatch out. 

"Mr. Wilson had the field to himself for practically 
ten years. Then a few more took it up. Possibly Howard 
Davis, also of New Jersey, was the second man to begin 
shipping. Now New Jersey is one of the great centers 

54 




FIG. 87. — A SHIPMENT 



of the industry with numerous plants ranging in capacity 
from fifty to two hundred and fifty thousand eggs. 

"The industry was started in Ohio by Michael Uhl, 
of New Washington, 18 years ago. Michael was a young 
man of about 25 years at that time who — it is said — re- 
fused to become interested in his father's farming opera- 
tions. He would not do anything but 'fuss with hens.' 
His chief delight seemed to be setting the hens and see- 
ing how many chickens he could raise on his father's 
supply of grain. This did not suit the elder Uhl, so he 
set 'young Mike' off on a piece of land by himself, where 
he could raise chickens to his heart's content. He saw 
the necessity of getting some revenue before the chicks 
grew to marketable age and began to sell baby chicks to 
his neighbors, sending them farther away each year, until 
he ventured to put them into wooden boxes and send 
by express to neighboring towns, and thus the day-old 

chick business in Ohio was 
started. 

"Both Mr. Wilson and Mr. 
Uhl began with very crude 
hatching machines. Mr. Wil- 
son used machines in which 
the eggs were placed on 
sawdust and heated with 
pans overhead, filled twice 
daily with hot water. These 
were followed by lamp ma- 
chines until hundreds were 
in use, and every lamp had 
to be filled and trimmed 
daily. Mr. Wilson at one 
time had 135 Cyphers Model 
incubators of 360-egg capac- 
ity each. Later he began to 
build 'mammoth' hot water 
machines, using Candee coal 
OF DAY-OLD CHICKS burning heaters, continuing 

this style of machines to his 
present capacity of one hundred and twenty-five thou- 
sand eggs. 

"Mr. Uhl built small, lamp machines of 200-egg 
capacity until he had 250 in one cellar. He saw the nec- 
essity of larger units and about eleven years ago con- 
structed his first mammoth machine. His entire plant 
is now equipped with this type and has a capacity of 
200,000 eggs. Lawrence and George Uhl, who are broth- 
ers of Michael, also operate large hatching plants. The 
Uhls were closely followed in Ohio by Dr. S. B. Smith, 
who has invented several types of machines, his present 
hatchery being a novel heated-room system having a 
capacity of 665,000 eggs. 

"The one feature that has been responsible more 
than any other for the development of the day-old chick 
industry is the recent great improvement in brooding 
systems. The old type of mammoth hot water brooders 
was expensive to install and lately has given way to the 
coal and oil burning brooders — this style being more 
efficient and requiring comparatively small space. Brood- 



DAY-OLD CHICKS AND CUSTOM HATCHHnG 



55 



crs with rated capacities of 300 to 1200 chicks are being 
purchased very generally by farmers, who find it to their 
advantage to be able to buy a sufficient number of chicks 
to arrive in one shipment to run the brooder at full 
capacity. 

"We hereby warn amateurs not to place too many 
chicks under one hover. Five hundred should be the 
limit for the best success. A thousand or more chicks 
might get along very nicely for a few days in open 
weather, but remember that the chicks should grow, and 
they need plenty of room in which to thrive. If you wish 
to start a thousand chicks you would better buy two or 
three colony brooders. Those who wish to purchase only 
twenty-five to one hundred chicks may purchase small 
lamp-heated brooders that are easy to operate, thus mak- 
ing it practical for all classes of poultrymen to buy their 
chicks already hatched — doing away with the bother and 
inconvenience of incubating by hens." 

Both Lamp-Heated and Mammoth Incubators Used 

This branch of the poultry industry is especially at- 
tractive to persons with 
limited capital, since it 
can be started profit- 
ably even on an ex- 
tremely small scale. 
The large operators 
with their huge mam- 
moth machines have 
important advantages 
over the small pro- 
ducer with his few 
lamp-heated incubators, 
but the latter also has 
some advantages over 
the former and need 
have no fear that he is 
going to be crowded 
out of the business. 
The person who hatch- 
es chicks by the hun- 
dred only can sell his 
total production local- FIG. 
ly at good prices and 



nomically as "baby" mammoths, changing over to a large 
mammoth after sales have reached the point where it is 
desirable to do this. It may be necessary to take some 
loss in making this change but there is always a demand 
for second-hand machines in good condition, so that the 
loss is not great, and a good portion of it should fairly 
be charged off as rental. In starting with lamp-heated 
machines however, it is important to get standard makes. 
These are easier operated and require much less atten- 
tion than second-class machines and will soon repay their 
extra cost in the economy in labor which they will ef- 
fect. Moreover, high-grade incubators have a definite re- 
placement value or can readily be sold as "used machines," 
while inferior makes are practically worthless after a 
few years' use. 

Who Should Buy Day-Old Chicks 

Day-old chicks can be secured in almost any desired 
grade or quality, with respect to breeding, and nearly 
every one engaged in poultry production, from the back- 
yard grower to the larger breeder and the commercial 




8— Ti'PE OF MAMMOTH INCUBATOR EXTENSIVELY USED 

HATCHERIES 



IN DAY - OLD CHICK 



While great numbers of chicles are hatched in lamp-heated incubators, mammoths are al- 
wiin nine expense ior most invariably installed when large hatching- capacity is desired. Their use results in great- 
advertising and ship- ly decreased labor, and fuel cost is lower. Courtesy of Candee Incubator Company. 



ping. And he has the 

satisfaction of knowing that as his reputation grows (and 
the man who can uniformily supply first-class, livable 
chicks to his customers does not have to wait long for a 
"reputation") he can rapidly build up his plant until he 
too may be turning chicks out by the tens of thousands. 

It is not necessary, therefore, to have a mammoth 
incubator to engage successfully in the production of day- 
old chicks. Many persons, both men and women, have 
found that with a few lamp-heated machines in the house 
cellar they could turn out large numbers of chicks in a 
season, in this manner marketing at good prices the eggs 
produced by their flocks, and laying the foundation for 
increasing trade in following years. Where the hatching 
is on a large scale, mammoth incubators are conceded to 
be a necessity, as they are more economical in operation 
and require much less time in attendance. Each operator 
must determine for himself which type he needs. 

Mammoth incubators now are made in comparatively 
small sizes though, for the average operator, there is lit- 
tle advantage in buying these. In starting on a small 
scale it usually will be better to buy lamp-heated ma- 
chines which can be operated fully as efficiently and eco- 



egg producer who count their fowls by the thousands, 
finds it desirable from time to time to purchase chicks. 
The person who wishes to start in poultry keeping in the 
spring, doing so on a small scale and at little expense for 
equipment, usually finds day-old chicks the cheapest and 
most convenient way of securing his stock. Those who 
require great numbers of chicks either for sjarting large 
plants or in order to replace their old flocks, find that 
by ordering baby chicks from some large hatchery they 
are able to get all they need, of the desired grade and 
at just the date when they want them, without providing 1 
expensive incubating equipment, and without any trouble 
or uncertainty about hatching. 

The purchase of chicks would seem to offer special 
advantages to beginners, or persons who wish to try 
things out before investing extensively in any sort of 
equipment, also those who are only taking up poultry 
keeping in a small way. Speaking generally, the poultry 
keeper who is trying to breed up his flock, to improve 
the laying qualities of his fowls or their standard value 
must, it would seem, do his own hatching, using eggs 
from his own fowls. Even the commercial poultry keeper 



56 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



usually will find that he will have better stock -and will 
secure it at less expense if he utilizes the pick of his 
flock in the production of eggs for hatching. 

However, there are numerous exceptions to this gen- 
eral rule. Some who would naturally be expected to do 
their own hatching may not have sufficient help to operate 
a good-sized poultry plant and look after the added work 
involved in the production of good hatching eggs and 
their incubation. Others on account of limited funds 
may find it necessary to purchase chicks instead of pro- 
viding their own hatching facilities. The commercial egg 
farmer who wishes to raise each year a certain number 
of pullets to keep up his flock can place his order with 
a responsible hatchery with the certainty that the entire 
number of chicks needed will be deliveied to him on 
the date which will insure the pullets coming into laying 
at the right time in the fall. This also greatly simplifies 
the work of caring for the chicks since they can be 
brooded in large flocks with colony hovers — the saving in 
brooding cost possibly covering the extra expense of buy- 
ing the chicks instead of hatching them in numerous 
small broods at home. 




FIG. 89— CHICK BOXES WITH "WOODEN STRIPS TO 
INSURE VENTILATION 

Shipping boxes provided with narrow wooden strips 
on top and sides cannot be piled together closely enough 
to interfere with the air supply of chicks in inside boxes. 

Who Should Produce Day-Old Chicks 

Almost any person who has a moderate-sized breed- 
ing flock and a suitable place for a few incubators, can 
embark in this branch of the industry with excellent 
prospects of success, almost regardless of location. There 
is no fixed limit in equipment required for profitable 
operation, or in size of breeding flocks. The thing to 
do is to start with whatever good-quality stock is on 
hand or may readily be obtained, providing as many 
lamp-heated machines as are needed to take care of the 
eggs produced, doing this with the assurance that any 
volume of production, no matter how small, may readily 
be disposed of at a profit. 

While the advantages possessed by large operators 
are important, there are distinct limits as to distance or 
time required for delivery which make it impossible for 
the large concerns to reach out for trade beyond a certain 
radius, no matter how low they may make the price with- 
in their natural territory. Moreover, there will always 
be many who will prefer to buy near home; who will 
want to buy from breeders whom they know and trust; 
■who will want the better stock that it is reasonable to 
expect from the small operators who hatch only the eggs 
produced by their own carefully mated breeding pens; 
and there is not the slightest doubt that, other things 



being equal, the shorter the distance the chicks have to 
travel the greater the certainty that they will arrive at 
their destination in prime condition. For these and other 
equally good reasons there is scarcely a locality in this 
country where it is not practicable for a competent, 
breeder or incubator operator to develop a profitable 
trade in baby chicks. 

In many instances hatcheries are operated by per- 
sons who have little or no breeding stock, but who de- 
pend upon getting their hatching eggs from other breed- 
ers or from farmers who have flocks of standard fowls 
from which they are willing to sell hatching eggs at only 
a slight advance over the market price. This practice is 
especially common where large numbers of eggs are re- 
quired and where the operation of the hatchery alone de- 
mands all the owner's time and attention. It has proved 
entirely practicable to maintain hatcheries in this way, 
and the farmers in the surrounding territory, with a lit- 
tle encouragement and expert advice, develop well-bred 
flocks and come to take a good deal of pride in them. It 
is generally conceded that there is no better source of 
hatching eggs than a flock of fowls having the range of 
a farm, where their health and vigor can be maintained 
at a high level by free range and the generally favorable 
conditions under- which they are kept. Sometimes the 
hatchery operator reserves the right to provide the males 
for these farm flocks, selling them to the owner usually 
at only nominal prices. He can well afford to do this in 
view of the improvement in the quality of the chicks that 
may thus be secured, and the consequently better prices 
that may be realized for them. 

Keeping faith with the customer is important in the 
day-old chick industry at all times and under all condi- 
tions, but it is imperative in the case of the small pro- 
ducer with a local market. The opportunity of dealing 
more or less personally with customers, of establishing a 
positive reputation for competency as a breeder and for 
fair dealing, is the small producer's greatest asset, and 
one that the distant, impersonal large concern cannot 
take from him. This reputation ought to cover the breed- 
ing of the chicks, their strength and vigor as determined 
both by the character of the breeding stock and the skill- 
ful management of the incubator, also the delivery of 
chicks exactly when promised, and in prime condition. 
The wise operator will lose no opportunity to win and 
keep a reputation for doing all this. It is betraying no 
secret to say that not every one who attempts to fur- 
nish day-old chicks is successful in producing strong, vig- 
orous stock; and a sickly lot of chicks is the poorest ad- 
vertisement that the seller can have. On the other hand 
the person who supplies strong, lively chicks that thrive 
and grow, and show that they are of good breeding as 
they develop, need have no fear of not being able to sell 
all that he can produce, and at profitable prices. 

What Breeds to Keep 

With a comparatively small plant, chicks of any of 
the popular breeds and varieties will find ready sale. If 
larger numbers are to be produced it is wise to consider 
the local demand thoroughly before determining what 
kind of fowls to keep. It is better to sell people what 
they want than to try to influence their choice. By all 
means avoid comparatively unknown breeds or varieties. 
No matter how desirable a particular breed may appear 
to the producer, it is not his preference but the cus- 
tomer's that is going to determine sales, and the day- 
old chick business is largely limited to a few popular 
breeds such as White Leghorns, Plymouth Rocks, Wyan- 
dottes, R. I. Reds, Orpingtons, etc. 






DAY-OLD CHICKS AND CUSTOM HATCHING 



57 



Leghorn chicks generally are produced more cheaply 
than others, owing to the fact that the average operator 
is able to get better hatches and better chicks from Leg- 
horn eggs than from eggs of the larger breeds. If sales 
are to be made mainly to farmers, it usually is necessary 
to supply chicks of the general-purpose breeds mentioned 
in the preceding paragraph, as there are many agricul- 
tural communities where Leghorns are not considered 
desirable. The latter, however, usually are demanded by 
commercial egg producers. Much that is said in regard 
to choice of breeds in Chapter I applies with full force 
to selection for the day-old chick trade. 

Prices That May Be Realized 

It is an unfortunate fact that the day-old chick busi- 
ness was started on a scale of too low prices, and the ef- 
fect of this is still felt, though much has been done lately 
to raise the general average of the chicks sold, and to 
educate the public to pay the better prices which must be 
realized if well-bred stock is to be furnished. It is. safe 
to assume that hatcheries that sell chicks at a price low 
enough to enable the 5 and 10 cent stores to retail them 
at ten cents apiece, are not losing money, but the buyer 
who expects to get anything but "just chickens" at that 
price is about certain to be disappointed. The average 
hatchery, especially when operating on a large scale, at 
minimum cost for both fuel and labor, can make out very 
well if it can sell chicks at an advance of $4.00 per hun- 
dred over the cost of the eggs. This means that with 
chicks selling at 10 cents from the incubator, the eggs 
must be bought at around 4 cents apiece, assuming that 
the two-thirds of all eggs set will hatch saleable chicks. 

This illustration is given for the double purpose of 
showing the buyer how unexacting he must be regard- 
ing the quality of chicks purchased so cheaply that they 
necessarily are hatched from eggs but one degree moved 
from ordinary market eggs; also of showing the small 
operator that he cannot afford to cater to this low-priced 
trade. This is true not only because he is bound to 
suffer disproportionately in reputation from the sale of 
inferior stock, but because he must, with his small hatch- 
ing capacity and correspondingly increased cost of pro- 
duction, get a greater margin of profit than would sat- 
isfy the large-scale operators — either this, or he must 
place a valuation on his own time too low to make the 
business really attractive. It is true that educating the 
public to pay higher prices is a task that calls for a good 
degree of salesmanship. The individual operator must 
decide for himself just how far he can afford to go in 
meeting the demand for cheap chicks, and how strong a 
stand he wishes to take. in holding prices at a point that 
will make it possible to hatch eggs produced by genuinely 
good breeding fowls. But there should be an especial ef- 
fort to have a clear understanding regarding the stock 
that is supplied at the price, whatever that may be. 

In making prices on stock of better quality the opera- 
tor must learn to figure for himself, but he should learn 
to figure accurately. If the eggs are produced by fairly 
good breeding stock and are valued as low as $10.00 per 
hundred, then in hatching operations that should be con- 
sidered the cost price, and the operator cannot afford to 
sell chicks from such eggs unless he gets this "cost price," 
plus an additional sum that will cover labor, interest on 
the investment, overhead charges, and a reasonable profit. 
A price for chicks that does not provide such a margin 
simply means that the operator is underselling himself. 
And absurd as it may seem, there is reason to believe 
that a good many are doing just that thing. In a gen- 
eral way most operators charge about double as much 



for chicks as they would be willing to accept for the 
eggs, though where fertility runs high this margin can be 
reduced somewhat, if it is found desirable to do so. 

How Day-Old Chicks Are Handled 

Owing to the peculiar provision of nature by which 
the newly hatched chicks are supplied with a store of food 
in the form of unabsorbed yolk "which enables them to go 
for several days, if necessary, without drawing on any 
other source of supply, it is practicable to ship them over 
considerable distances. The U. S. Post Office Depart- 
ment will accept parcel post shipments of chicks that can 
be delivered within 72 hours after they are received at the 
postoffice. A great many instances are on record where 
chicks have been on the way for a longer time than this, 
without suffering any apparent injury. 

Chicks generally are shipped as soon as possible after 
they are dry, and in order to avoid delay, every detail 
of their shipment is attended to in advance of their hatch- 
ing. The shipping boxes, which are bought flat or knock- 
down, are set up, labels pasted on, and the bottom of the 
box covered with suitable litter. The shipping tags also 
are made out and the number for each order is marked 
on the tags, so that when the chicks are ready to be 




FIG. 90— PASTEBOARD CKICK BOXES 

Facked in these substantial but light-weight 
boxes, chicks may be shipped by express or parcel 
post and will travel comfortably and arrive in prac- 
tically as good condition as if hatched right at home. 

taken from the incubator, there will be no necessity for 
referring to the original order, or the correspondence. 
The chicks are simply removed from the machine, counted 
into boxes, the tops tied on with stout cord or sealed 
with a strip of gummed paper, and they are ready for 
the express or mail train. 

Shipments usually are made in corrugated pasteboard 
boxes, which are quite light in weight, and their construc- 
tion affords fair insulation so that the chicks' bodily 
warmth keeps them comfortable under all ordinary con- 
ditions, and they suffer no ill effects whatever from two 
or three days' confinement if adequate ventilation is pro- 
vided. This is done by cutting or punching holes in the 
top and sides of the box, the number and location being 
left to the judgment of the shipper, who is guided in these 
respects by his knowledge of the conditions under which 
the chicks are to travel, the weather, etc. Shipments in 
cold weather, or over routes which involve long, cold 
waits at junction points, should have less ventilation than 
those made in warm weather or where they are to go 
through without delay and will be kept in heated cars 
or offices most of the time. 

After careful deliveration thx> International Baby 
Chick Association, in 1918, decided upon a standard style 
and sizes for boxes to be used in the shipment of chicks, 
which boxes are illustrated in Figs. 89 and 90. These 



58 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



boxes are of double-faced, waterproof corrugated board, 
and the sizes are as follows: 

100 chick box, 22x18 in. x 5% in. deep — 4 compartments 
50 chick box, 18x11 in. x hy 2 in. deep — 2 compartments 
25 chick box, 9x11 in. x 5 % in. deep — 1 compartment 
12 chick box, 6x 8 in. x 5 in. deep — 1 compartment 

Extreme delays due to neglect, freight congestion, or 
bad connections, and chilling through excess ventilation 
or exposure to severe cold, are the most serious dangers 
that have to be considered in day-old chick shipments, 
and it is unavoidable that there should be some disappoint- 
ments and some injured, weakened chicks. Every possi- 
ble precaution should be taken to prevent these misfor- 
tunes or to minimize their effects. There should be the 
clearest possible understanding between shipper and pur- 
chaser as to when the chicks are to be shipped and how, 
so that the latter can be on hand to receive them as soon 
as they arrive. The seller must give safe delivery his 
careful attention, as a single lot of dead or weakly chicks 
may mark the end of his business relations with the cus- 




F1G. 91— A FINE LOT OF SIX- WEEK-OLD CHICKS 
The trade in partially grown chicks is increasing rapidly and 
seems to be capable of indefinite extension. At this size, sex can be 
determined with a good degree of accuracy. The demand, of course, 
is chiefly for pullets, and good prices are paid for them at this age, 
when they no longer require brooding. 



tomer or the entire community. He can afford to do 
everything in reason and a few things out of reason to 
insure complete satisfaction. 

Whether he should guarantee safe arrival and re- 
place damaged shipments free or at a reduced price, must 
be determined individually; practice varies in this re- 
spect. Guaranteed shipments undoubtedly contributed to 
the purchaser's satisfaction, but complaints are always 
much more frequent under guarantees than where chicks 
are shipped at customer's risk. Whatever plan is adopted 
in this respect there should be a clear understanding in 
regard to it, and both seller and buyer must fairly meet 
the terms of the agreement, the obligations of which rest 
with equal weight on each. One thing that the buyer 
can and should do is to place his order with the nearest 
hatchery that can fill it acceptably. The shotter the dis- 
tance the chicks have to be transported and the few.er 
charges they must make en route, the better chance thev 
will have to come through in first-class condition. 

The provision that the customer makes for the re- 
ception and care of the chicks may be no direct concern 
of the seller, but it is common knowledge that great 
numbers of chicks are lost each year through improper 
brooding, and this always reacts more or less seriously 
upon the person who supplied them. The average inex- 
perienced buyer of chicks often fails at this point, either 
through not providing adequate brooding facilities, re- 
sulting in overcrowding, or through employing cheap, un- 
reliable brooders, particularly the "tireless" kind, the use 
of which in cold weather, by persons inexperienced in the 
handling of chicks, is almost certain to result in heavy 
losses and epidemics of so-called "white diarrhea." 

The tfrnyer of day-old chicks must keep in mind that 



this industry is conducted mainly on the basis of advance 
orders, and if he sends in his orders, especially during 
the busy season, expecting immediate delivery, he is apt 
to be disappointed. The only way to insure delivery of 
chicks at a certain time is by getting the order in early 
enough to insure one's "turn" coming on that date. Most 
operators will file orders and hold them for delivery on a 
specified date if a reasonable deposit is made, the balance 
of the purchase price to be forwarded about the time the 
chicks are to be shipped. To insure delivery exactly when 
wanted however, it usually is necessary to file orders 
weeks 6r even months in advance. 

What to Do With Surplus Chicks 

After chicks have reached the age where feeding and 
watering must begin (2 to 3 days), they cannot then be 
safely shipped, but must be held until they no longer re- 
quire artificial heat and can be handled in the same man- 
ner as adult fowls. Since there often are hatches or 
parts of hatches for which there are no advance orders, 
every hatchery must be equipped to brood chicks 
so that any surplus may be properly cared for 
and the chicks raised to a saleable age. Do not 
attempt to do this by the use of lampless brood- 
ers. It can be done, bvit the labor cost will be 
out of all proportion to the value of the chicks. 
For large numbers there is nothing better than 
coal, oil or gasoline-heated colony hovers (see 
Chapter IX). For small lots the average operator 
will find good lamp-heated hovers more satis- 
factory,' hence brooders of both types should be 
provided and held in reserve for emergencies. 
The exclusive use of colony hovers is apt to 
lead to putting chicks of different ages into the 
same flock, which is not practical and will re- 
sult in heavy losses. 

One feature of the chick business that is de- 
veloping rapidly is the sale of "six-weeks-old" 
chicks, meaning chicks that have been raised to 
the point where they no longer need artificial 
heat or brooding and where the sex may be de- 
termined, the demand of course being almost ex- 
clusively for pullets. Just as there are many 
persons who do not want to do any hatching, 
so there are many others who wish to be spared 
the further expense of providing brooding facili- 
ties for raising young chicks, or the trouble of 
caring for them. They prefer to secure their 
stock after all the difficult work has been done, 
when few further losses are to be expected, and 
when only the slightest skill and experience are 
sufficient to insure raising the chicks to adult 
size. The day-old chick producer is in position to meet 
this demand to good advantage, using all chicks for which 
there may not happen to be a market at the time they 
come from the machine, and raising them to this age at 
comparatively little cost. 

Custom Hatching 

Custom hatching, by which is meant operating incu- 
bators on a rental basis, or hiring space in machines to 
persons who furnish the eggs to be incubated, is becom- 
ing increasingly popular, especially among those who keep 
fowls and who wish to have chicks hatched from their 
own stock but do not want to go to the expense or trou- 
ble of providing their own hatching facilities. Where 
this is done the charge is based either on chicks hatched, 
or on a lUO-egg rate. 

The satisfaction realized in this branch of the indus- 
try depends upon the fertility of the eggs and the skill 
of the operator, both of which should be good if com- 
plaints are to be avoided. Persons who furnish eggs for 
this purpose often have extreme notions as to the num- 
ber of chicks that should be delivered to them, and poor 
hatches are a source of great dissatisfaction and may 
cause much more trouble than the business is worth. 
Experienced operators who are uniformily successful in 
the work, however, find it quite profitable. 

The usual charge made where large hatching capacity 
is available, is about 4 cents per chick or $3.00 per hun- 
dred eggs. There would appear to be especially good op- 
portunities for the development of a profitable business 
in custom hatching in agricultural communities where 
there are large numbers of good-sized flocks of fowls, 
and where the home use of incubators is limited. 



CHAPTER VIII 

Practical Incubator Houses 



Convenience and Economy of Having a Practical, Well-Planned House for Incubators— Building to Save Time and 

Labor — Best Location and How to Build— How to Insure Thorough Ventilation — Plans 

for Houses Underground and Aboveground. 



y^lHE poultry keeper who has a good-sized house 
(J cellar in which suitable conditions can be main- 
■mr tained, and who does not expect to operate more 
EBSSsI than a few machines, may not find it necessary 
to provide special quarters for them. There are a num- 
ber of practical advantages in having a separate, special- 
ly designed house for incubator use, however, and in the 
long run it usually pays to provide such where many 
chicks are to be hatched. Some insurance companies re- 
fuse to permit the operation of incubators in houses in- 
sured by them, and this may have a bearing on the deci- 
sion regarding special quarters. However, as there are 
a number of companies that make no objection to the use 
of the better grades of incubators, which are practically 
fireproof, there usually is no difficulty about arranging 
for the transfer of the insurance to a company with a 
more liberal policy, if that is the only serious obstacle to 
be considered. 

The usual practical difficulty met in utilizing the 
house cellar is that ventilation is nearly always inade- 
quate, and special provision must be made for this. 
Neither is it desirable to operate incubators in cellars 
that smell musty, or that are used for the storage of 
vegetables or fruit, either fresh or canned, as a suitable 
temperature for the incubator makes the cellar too warm 
for such purposes. Extremely cold cellars are not desir- 
able and if heated by the house furnace, some means will 
have to be provided for overcoming the dryness of the 
air which is a regular accompaniment of artificially heated 
rooms, either below or aboveground. 

Where a number of incubators are operated in a 
cellar of ordinary construction, ventilation may be se- 
cured by installing flues of the type illustrated in Fig. 
95. These, in connection with such windows as usually 
are provided should supply ample ventilation. If the ex- 
pense of installing flues is considered out of the ques- 
tion it may be possible to pipe the fumes directly out of 
the room. Some machines are especially constructed to 
meet this requirement. 

Incubators are used in various aboveground build- 
ings and rooms and often with a good degree of success, 
though the difficulties in the way of securing satisfac- 
tory hatches under such conditions unquestionably are 



Louve.re.ei „ .„ 

ventuafion la *ZV 




Yerrt HvC 




FIG. 93— INCUBATOR HOUSE ON 
SLOPING GROUND 
This probably is the most de- 
sirable location for the incubator 
house, where the slope of the 
ground makes it possible to build 
in this way. Reproduced from 
Reading- Course Bui. No. 80, Cor- 
nell University. 



FIG% 92— END ELEVATION OF INCUBATOR HOUSE 



greater than in houses especially planned for the purpose. 
Incubators are capable of remarkably exact regulation 
within reasonable limits, but a room in which the tem- 
perature fluctuates 20 degrees or more from day to day 
adds greatly to the difficulty of operation. To be re- 
lieved of the necessity for watching the incubator closely, 
it is necessary to have the machines in a room where the 
temperature does not vary greatly, a condition which it 
is practically impossible to secure in a house or room of 
ordinary construction. Where such rooms must be used, 
much can be done to reduce temperature variations by 
closing with wood- 
en shutters all win- 
d o w s facing the 
south, and shading 
any through which 
the sun can shine 
directly, also by 
looking carefully 
after the ventilation. 
In severely cold 
weather the room 
should be heated to 
SO to 60 degrees, 
the most desirable 
temperature in 
which to operate in- 
cubators. The moist- 
ure problem gener- 
ally is much more troublesome in such rooms than in 
cellars. 

Location for Incubator House 

With an incubator house properly designed and con- 
structed, and with the conveniences and labor-saving 
facilities that can there be provided and which it seldom 
is practical to supply in other locations, the work of car- 
ing for the machines may be greatly reduced and most 
desirable conditions as to temperature, moisture, and ven- 
tilation can constantly and uniformily be maintained. 

The best location for the permanent incubator house 
in most sections is partially underground in order to 
secure uniformity of temperature, but not so much be- 
low the ground level as to interfere with ventilation. 
Other reasons for placing incubator houses partially un- 
derground are that they usually are more economical to 
build than aboveground houses affording similarly favor- 
able conditions; they are warmer in winter and cooler in 
summer; a more uniform degree of humidity can be 
maintained the season through. The house may be built 
entirely aboveground where it is necessary to do so, but 
such construction usually is more expensive if the build- 
ing is planned so as to secure reasonable uniformity in 
temperature. 

To meet average requirements the building should 
be four or five feet underground, and the rest above, 
though something depends upon the slope of the land 
where the house is to be located. With sufficient slope 
an ideal arrangement is to have all the back part of the 
house underground up to the eaves, and the side with the 

K9 



60 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



entrance at or near the ground level, as in Fig. 93. On 
level ground the general outlines of the house shown in 
Figs. 92, 94, 95, and 96, will be found most desirable. The 
length and width should be proportioned to the size of 
the incubators to be used, always allowing for a passage- 
way of ample width between the machines — seldom less 
than four feet. A narrower passage can be used if test- 
ing and most other work is to be done in a separate 
workroom, but the convenience of the wider passage will 
amply repay the slight additional cost. Making the ceil- 
ing of the incubator room so low that only comfortable 
headroom is afforded is a grave mistake. To secure 
proper ventilation it should be fully 8 feet high, and it 
will be better still if higher. 

The incubator house should have a gable roof with 
plenty of space between the ceiling and rafters. The roof 
is the point which, after the windows, is apt to cause 
most variation in room temperature, and if this is entire- 
ly cut off by a tight ceiling and the gable ventilated by 
large openings that permit free passage of air, heat from 
the roof will make little trouble. Gable ventilation should 
be adjustable, or the openings should be more or less 
tightly closed in cold weather by covering with muslin 
or burlap to conserve heat. 

The floor and the underground walls should always 
be of concrete. This not only gives greater permanence, 
but wood used underground is apt to be quickly covered 
with mold on exposed surfaces, which may prove a source 
of trouble. If possible, the floor should have a drain so 
that the room can be conveniently flushed and scrubbed. 
Do not neglect providing a trap in the drain even though 
the latter may have an open outlet. 

All walls that are above the ground level should be 
doubled, with dead air spaces or packed with insulating 
material. Ordinarily the walls above ground level should 
be boarded on the outside with matched siding, using 
ceiling boards or a heavy coat of wall plaster on the 
inside walls and ceiling. The best grades of waterproof 
plasterboard would seem to be well adapted to this use, 
as they afford little chance for the accumulation of dust, 
and can be washed down when necessary. Good wooden 
shingles make the best roofing, as these do not absorb 
heat like ordinary prepared roofing. The latter, how- 
ever, is cheaper and for that reason is most generally used. 

Every incubator cellar of whatever size should have 
a separate vestibule and workroom where the trays are 
filled, the eggs tested and weighed, the lamps filled, and 
where all desirable conveniences for doing the work can 
be provided. A good workbench should be installed at 
a convenient height. The oil supply should be kept in 
a tank or barrel on the outside of the building and piped 
into the workroom. A cupboard or shelves should be 
provided for the storage of burners, thermometers and all 
extra parts and accessories. If large numbers of lamps 
are to be filled it may be well to have a sink under the 
oil faucet, to carry off any oil that may be spilled, and 







3- - : ^t **ti»aSl 






<0> ©• (D; <0> 



FIG. 



EhUrtfed Dec &i7-Door 1/entiUt-orSlide P&rtty O/ieit. 
95— CROSS SECTION OF INCUBATOR HOUSE 



with a water tap for flushing if possible. For the small 
cellar, a more practical plan is to have a box or tray of 
suitable size to be kept under the drip and partially filled 
with shavings or other absorbent material which can be 
emptied from' time to time, thus preventing the floor from 
becoming saturated with oil. These oil-soak»d shavings 
make excellent kindling for fires. 

If available, running water should be piped into the 
workroom. If this cannot be done there should be a 
water tank with a faucet, or at least a good-sized bucket, 
so that there will always be a supply of water on hand 
for various uses. A convenient place for washing hands 
is desirable. In one end of the workroom provision may 
be made for storing eggs while awaiting their turn in 
the incubators. 

If the eggs are to be tested in daylight the work- 
room should be provided with shutters or tight curtains 
so that it can be made dark for the purpose. It often is 
possible to arrange for one or two holes in one of the 
window shutters or curtains so that the eggs can be 
tested by direct sunlight. It is desirable to have electric 
light in the workroom if possible; if not, a permanent 
light of some other kind should be installed, if only to 
discourage the tendency to keep the incubator lamps 
burning while they are being filled, which is more or 
less dangerous, and fills the room with smoke. 

Incubator House for Lamp-Heated Incubators 

The house illustrated in Figs. 92, 94, 95 and 96, wiil 
accommodate eight good-sized machines, and can readily 
be changed to meet larger or smaller requirements, sim- 
ply increasing or reducing the length. There seldom is 
any necessity for changing the width. The outside dimen- 
sions of the house are 13 feet, 4 inches, by 26 feet, 2 
inches, or 12 by 25 feet, inside measurements. The ceil- 
ing is 9 feet, 4 inches high. 

This house has a 5-foot concrete 
wall, extending 3 feet below ground 
level and windows in the framed wall 
as indicated. With these windows so 
located and protected by outside 
burlap screens, also by wide eaves, 
ventriut tne y will admit little direct sunlight, 

and all incubators will be equally well 
Concrete Srep s located as to ventilation, provided 
proper attention is given to the ad- 
justment of windows, those on the 
-."!*r.->_--^~ "--_.-_-_-.;-.: side from which the wind comes al- 

FIG. 94 — SIDE ELEVATION OF INCUBATOR HOUSE ways being closed, or practically so. 



"~'"S 




PRACTICAL INCUBATOR HOUSES 



61 




FIG 



FLOOR PLAN OF INCUBATOR HOUSE 



except in warm weather. If the house is built with the 
door facing in the direction from which severe storms 
are to be expected, it will be necessary to protect the 
steps with a vestibule, hood, or sloping doors. 

As will be seen in Fig. 95, this house is to be pro- 
vided with ventilating flues. These may be made of 
galvanized iron as indicated in the plan, or heavy sewer 
pipe may be used. Many prefer to build the flue into 
the concrete wall, which in most cases is the better and 
cheaper way. These flues are to be 8 inches in diameter 
or must provide an equivalent amount of flue space if 
made in some other shape. There should be one flue 
for every 100 square feet of floor space and in connec 
tion with the windows in the upper part of the wall these 
will supply adequate ventilation for the room under 
practically any condition. A damper or check must al- 
ways be provided so that the air circulation will be un- 
der control. 

If this system of ventilation is not installed it will 
be necessary to provide some means for piping the lamp 
fumes out of the room, though it is difficult to do this 
with most machines. The circulation of air in such pipes 
is a somewhat uncertain factor in windy weather when 
back drafts often are set up which return the fumes to 
the room unless the outlet pipe is connected with 
a flue in which forced air circulation is main- 
tained by heat. In general, it is much better and 
simpler to provide for the removal of the lamp 
fumes and the renewal of the air in the room by 
the use of correctly designed ventilation. 

In building this house remember that the 
forms for a five-foot concrete wall require heavy 
bracing. Whatever the thickness of the wall, it 
is desirable to have the bottom extended for 
footing, as shown in Fig. 95. If soft spots are 
found in the ground at this depth, which is not 
probable, the excavation at these points must 
be carried down to solid ground to prevent crack- 
ing and settling of the walls. The side walls at 
the steps may be four to six inches thick, and 
the steps should be solid. 

The frame of this house is to be of 2x6-inch 
timbers, with the sills anchored to the founda- 
tion wall. The walls above the ground are to be 
double-boarded with heavy sheathing paper 
nailed to each side of the studs and the boards 
laid over this. The ceiling of the room should 
also have an insulating covering of sheathing 
paper tacked to the lower face of the joists be- 
fore the boards are nailed on. 



Note that burlap frames are to be 
provided outside of all windows, 
screening the windows from the sun 
and preventing direct air currents 
when the windows are open. In warm 
weather or when the wind is not 
blowing, the burlap screens may be 
opened outwartl admitting more air, 
but still screening the windows from 
direct sunlight which, if unobstruct- 
ed, is liable to raise the room tem- 
perature several degrees in a short 
time, and interfere with the regula- 
tion of the machines. A shingle roof 
is recommended for this building as 
shingles give a more even tempera- 
ture than prepared roofing. Both 
gables should have louvered ventila- 
tors, as shown. 

BILL OF MATERIAL FOR INCUBATOR HOUSE 

Use Size Len Sth No. of Remarks 

use Inches Feet Pieces Kemarks 

Sills, side 2x6 

Sills, end 2x6 

Plates, side 2x6 

Plates, end 2x6 

Studs, front & back 2x6 

Studs, ends 2x6 

Rafters 2x6 

Ties 1x6 

Partition studs 2x4 

Ridge pole 1x7 

Roof boards 1x10 

T & G siding- %x6 

Ceiling 1 , partition, 

shelves, etc %x4 

Frame for doors 

and windows %x6 

Frame for burlap 

shutter %x2 

Trim lumber %x4 

Barge boards %x8 

5M. shingles. 

2 doors, 2 feet, 10 inches x 6 feet, 6 inches. 

6 sash, 6-light 12xl2-inch glass. 

6 metal sash adjusters. 
36 sq. ft. burlap. 

6 bolts 1 /4xl2-inch with 2-inch washers. 

1 pr. 5-inch butt hinges. 
12 pr. 2-inch butt hinges for windows and screens. 

1 metal ventilator slide 5 inches x 2 feet 3 inches. 

1 door lock. 

4 8-inch ventilator flues with dampers, cords and pulleys. 

Nails, tacks and paint. 

MATERIAL FOR FOUNDATION AND FLOOR 
70 bags of Portland cement; 162 cu. ft. of sand; 325 cu. 
ft. of crushed stone or gravel. 



14 


4 


14 


2 


14 


4 


14 


2 


10 


7 T pice cuts 2 


8 


12 Cut to fit 


10 


28 


10 


13 


10 


6 


14 


2 




500 ft. board measure 




325 ft. board measure 



1000 ft. board measure 

100 lin ft. Surfaced 4 sides 

70 Jin ft. Surfaced 4 sides 

150 lin ft. Surfaced 4 sides 

100 lin ft. Surfaced 4 sides 








* 






E 








E 















<__ _. 2.0'-__ i. 4 

FIG. 97— FLOOR PLAN OF ABOVEGROUND INCUBATOR HOUSE 
The principal feature to be secured in an aboveground house 
is insulation, to avoid irregular room temperatures. Note how 
this is provided by means of a double wall with 2-foot passage- 
way between outer and inner walls. Reproduced from Bulletin 
4, Western Washington Experiment Station. 



62 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




FIG. 



98 — A SUCCESSFUL, ABOVEGROUND INCUBATOR HOUSE 
Photo from Oregon State Agricultural College. 



A Small Incubator House 

Where there are practical objections to building the 
incubator house partially underground as suggested in 
the preceding plan, it may be built entirely aboveground 
and, if properly designed, will give excellent service. Such 
a house has been built at the Western Washington Ex- 
periment Station and has been in successful use there for 
several years. It is illustrated in Fig. 97. This house 
can be built at comparatively slight cost where cheap 
lumber is available, and is large enough to meet the re- 
quirements of farmers and small producers generally. It 
can be located wherever convenient and requires no ex- 
cavation whatever. The following description is con- 
densed from Bui. No. 4 of the West. Washington Station: 

"The house is 16 feet wide, 20 feet long, and 9 feet 
to the eaves, finished with No. 1 rustic, with a one-third 
slope, and has a shingled roof. The door is in the north 
end. There are two windows in each side. The south 
end of the building is built solid, with the exception of 
the small ventilator in the end near the peak, as seen in 
the north end above the door and just below the peak. 
The house was painted red and trimmed in white, giving 
it a neat appearance. To construct an incubator house 
like the one illustrated above, the following bill of lum- 
ber is required: 

"The main and outer portion of the 
building requires: 

3 pieces 4x4-in., 20 ft. long, for sills. 
2 pieces 2x4-in., 20 ft. long, plates. 

11 pieces 2x4-in., 16 feet long, floor 

joists. 
30 pieces 2x4-in., 9 ft. long, studding. 
11 pieces 2x4-in., 16 feet long, ceil- 
ing joists. 
22 pieces 2x4-in., 12 ft. long, rafters. 
750 board feet of matched siding. 
600 board feet of lx6-inch sheathing 
(also used for corner boards and 
other finish lumber). 
4M cedar shingles. 
320 board feet of matched flooring. 
320 board feet of matched ceiling. 
1 door 2 ft. 8 in. x 6 ft. 8 in. 

4 window sash 12xl6-in., 4-light. 

To construct the inner hatching room 

provide: 

22 pieces 2x3-in., 9 ft. long. 
1200 hoard foot of matched ceiling. 
1 door 2 ft. 8 in. x 6 ft. 8 in. 

"The building is constructed on the 
ground with a wooden floor and 
stands on cedar blocks resting on flat 
rocks projecting above the surface of 
the ground. The three pieces, 4 inch 



x 4 inch x 20 feet, provided in the 
bill of materials, are used as sills, 
one on either side and one in the 
middle. Eleven pieces, 2 inch x 4 inch 
x 16 feet, are nailed on their edges 
two feet apart to the sills and cov- 
ered with I inch x 6 inch tongue- 
and-groove flooring. For studding 
for the outer walls use 2 inch x 4 
inch x 9 feet, set two feet apart, cen- 
ter to center. For plates use 2 inch 
x 4 inch x 20 feet. For ceiling joist, 
use eleven pieces 2 inch x 4 inch x 16 
feet, and for rafters 22 pieces 2 inch 
x 4 inch x 12 feet. Ceil with 1 inch 
x 4 inch tongue-and-groove ceiling. 
Enclose the building with 1 inch x 
10 inch shiplap. Cover the rafters 
with 1 inch x 6 inch sheathing laid 
and nailed two inches apart, and shin- 
gle. Put in on either side two 3 ft. 
x 3 ft. windows, placed five feet above 
the floor. Build the frame for the window to admit open- 
ing them by sliding. These windows cannot be hung on 
hinges, since the inner room would interfere in opening 
them. Now draw a line around the entire room two feet 
from the wall. On this line at intervals of four feet place 
2 inch x 3 inch x 9 feet studding. Ceil both sides of 
the studding with 1 inch x 4 inch ceiling. Put in two 
ventilator windows 2 feet x 2 feet 5 inch in each side 
directly opposite the outer windows and close them with 
doors made of matched ceiling. Hang these ventilators 
with 4-inch strap hinges at the lower edge. To open 
them, tip them back from the top by the means of a cord. 
"In the floor plan here shown the door in the north 
end leads into an air space (A) two feet in width extend- 
ing around the inner room (D), which is entered through 
the door (F), which is directly opposite the outer door. 
The inner room (D) contains six 250-egg incubators 
(EEE). CC are the windows in the outer wall and are 
directly opposite and at the same height as the ventilator 
windows (BBB) in the inner, double wall. 

"As originally constructed the house proved to be 
too warm when all machines were running but this trou- 
ble was eliminated by the installation of a King Ventilat- 
ing System and we now regard it as quite satisfactory, 
securing as it does an even temperature and pure air, 




FIG. 99— BRICK INCUBATOR HOUSE 

Brick houses are desirable, but rather expensive. This house has venti- 
lating flues running above the roof, and chimney for stove in the workroom- 
It would be improved by addition of louvered ventilators in front and real 
gables. Is in use at Pennsylvania Experiment Station. 



PRACTICAL INCUBATOR HOUSES 



63 



both of which are indispensable in 
the hatching of chicks or turkeys by 
artificial methods." 

It will be noticed that this house 
is described as being 16 feet by 20 
feet, though in the floor plan the 
width is indicated as 18 feet, which 
no doubt is an oversight, as the pro- 
portions correspond to the printed 
descriptions. In the bill of material 
the amount of flooring, ceiling, etc., 
as specified, represents only the sur- 
face to be covered, and about one- 
fourth should be added to the esti- 
mates to cover matching and other 
shrinkage. 

In considering this plan it should 
be remembered that the climate of 
Western Washington is comparative- 
ly mild and less provision need be made for warmth than 
will be found in many other sections of the country. In 
warm climates the plan of having the entrance door on 
the north side will be found desirable, but where severe 
winters are the rule it will be better to have it on the 
south side. Under such conditions, also, building the 
house with a single board floor will not be satisfactory. 
If a board floor is used at all it should be doubled, with 
heavy insulating material between the top floor and the 
subfloor, and the space between floor and ground should 
be tightly enclosed by banking up around the building 
with earth. A concrete floor however, will be much 
better, particularly for use in cold climates, and prob- 
ably will be no more expensive than a properly con- 
structed board floor. With these and possibly other 
minor changes in detail to meet special conditions, this 
house should prove satisfactory almost anywhere. 

Other Types of Incubator Houses 

Other incubator houses are shown in Figs. 98, 99 
and 100, their special features being readily understood 





FIG. 100— CONCRETE INCUBATOR CELLAR 
For incubator houses built mostly underground, solid concrete construc- 
tion to the square is very satisfactory. The incubator room should be ceiled 
overhead and gable well ventilated sc that the sun shining on the roof will 
not affect room temperature. 



FIG. 101— INTERIOR OF INCUBATOR HOUSE AT PENNA. EXP. STATION 

with but little detail description. The aboveground in- 
cubator house shown in Fig. 98 has been in use for 
some years at the Oregon Experiment Station, where it 
has given satisfactory results. This is a frame building, 
shingled on the outside and ceiled on the inside with 
tongue-and-groove boards. It is 20x30 feet, with 6-inch 
foundation walls 12 inches in the ground, on a 10-inch 
footing, and extending about 8 inches above the top of 
the floor. It is provided with a 4-inch concrete floor. 
The incubator room is 9 feet high in the clear. 

There are three double windows on each side, the 
sashes being 30x24 inches, hinged at the bottom to swing 
in. All window openings are covered with shutters hav- 
ing adjustable wooden slats, and there are 6 metal air- 
intakes, which discharge air into the room near the floor 
level. As will be noted, the windows are high up on 
the sides and the building has wide eaves which shade 
the windows and help to prevent the sun from heating 
up the interior. A double door is provided in front for 
ease in taking incubators in or out, and the gable has 
louvered ventilators. 

The house shown in Figs. 99 and 
101 is in use at the Pennsylvania Ex- 
periment Station. It is built of brick, 
with a stone foundation and concrete 
floor, and is provided with built-in 
ventilator flues in opposite corners of 
the room, with openings both at 
floor and ceiling. These flues dis- 
charge through brick chimneys ex- 
tending above the roof as shown. 
One corner is cut off for use as a ves- 
tibule and workroom, and the en- 
trance to the incubator room is 
through this. The large door shown 
as one side of the front opens direct- 
ly into the incubator room, but is 
only used when incubators are to be 
removed, or in cleaning and sunning 
the room. The entrance door com- 
monly used is at the left of the dou- 
ble door, being hidden by a tree in 
illustration. This door opens into 
the workroom which is provided with 
a small stove that not only keeps it 
at a comfortable temperature but, by 
leaving the door open into the incu- 
bator room, it will also warm that 
to some extent — a most desirable 
feature for winler use. There are 



64 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



windows on all sides of this house 
except the south and wooden shut- 
ters are provided to prevent fluctua- 
tion of temperature due to direct 
sunlight. An interior view of this 
house is shown in Fig. 101. 

The concrete incubator house 
shown in Fig. 101 is similar to the 
one shown in Figs. 92, 94 and 96, 
except that the walls are of concrete 
to the square. In place of the side 
ventilator flues, a center flue is pro- 
vided which opens above the ridge 

and extends down to within a foot of the floor. This 
flue is sawed off just below the ceiling and hinged so 
that it can be hooked up out of the way when desirable. 
The photo from which this illustration was made was 
taken before the steps and banking up were completed. 
The house is 12x12 feet, inside measure, and furnishes 
ample room for the average small operator. Where gravel 
and sand are readily available and the work can be done 
without hired help, the cost of such a building will be 
comparatively slight. 

Incubator House Floors 

The statement on page 60 to the effect that incubator 
house floors should always be of concrete, is subject 
to modification under some conditions. Many opera- 
tors prefer to lay concrete floors only in the passage- 
ways, the balance of the floor being left bare to insure 
greater humidity. There is no practical objection to do- 
ing this where the soil is sandy or gravelly. Even where 
the soil is clay, but where the site can be well drained, 
it is practical to follow the same plan, excavating the 
floor deep enough so that the unfloored sections can be 
filled in with four to six inches of sand. This arrange- 
ment materially increases the moisture naturally present 
in the air in the incubator room and when more is re- 
quired the floor can be wet down at intervals. Supplying 
needed moisture to the air before it enters the incubator 
is the most natural way of doing so. Under ordinary 
conditions excellent results are secured by the above 
method, though it is much more difficult to keep the floor 
clean and sanitary. 

Houses for Mammoth Incubators 

Plans for mammoth incubator houses generally are 
futnished by the manufacturers of the machines pur- 




FIG. 103— SINGLE MAMMOTH INCUBATOR CELLAR PLAN 
This floor plan can be adapted to any style of mammoth. In case of 
doubt as to dimensions, always build a little larger than seems necessary. 
Crowded quarters in the incubator house are annoying and add to the labor. 
Courtesy of Candee Incubator Company. 



chased. However, the plans for a house for lamp-heated 
machines, shown in Figs. 92, 94, 95 and 96, will prove 
helpful in many cases, as they suggest some general de- 
tails of practical value in any house, regardless of what 
make of incubator is used. Dimensions will depend on 
the size of the machine to be accommodated, and on 
whether the sections can be set up facing each other or 
must be tended from both sides, thus requiring a pa - 
sageway all round the machine. The house illustrated 
in Fig. 102 is built after the general plan of the one de- 
signed for lamp-heated machines, but as there will be 
only one or at most two coal-burning heaters in opera- 
tion and no lamp fumes discharged into the room, there 
is less need for special ventilators, which some omit en- 
tirely, though a few flues certainly will prove desirable. 
The windows should be installed as shown in Fig. 95, 
and provided with burlap screens in the same way. 

The ventilated gables shown in Fig. 102 will answer 
very well for houses under 50 feet in length, but if lon- 
ger, ridge ventilators should be provided. These may be 
of the familiar wooden louvered type spacing them 20 
to 30 feet apart, or special galvanized iron ventilators may 
be obtained. 

The floor plan in Fig. 103 shows the usual method 
of installing a single mammoth of the type having doors 
on both sides. In all cases, make the room wide enough 
to give a roomy passageway — a feature of much import- 
ance in the daily care of the machine. A great conveni- 
ence in all large incubator rooms is a work-table mounted 
on easy-running, rubber-faced castors or smay wheels, 
so that when machines or sections are to be set or 
hatches taken off, the table can readily be wheeled just 
where it is needed, and much inconvenience and loss of 
time avoided. 





PIG. 102- 



>USK FOR MAMMOTH INCUBATOR 



CHAPTER IX 

The Selection of Brooding Equipment 

Complete Description of Practical Types of Brooding Equipment — Fireless Brooders and How to Build Them — 1 amp 
Heated Hovers — Portable Hovers — Outdoor Brooders — Colony Hovers — Hot Water Systems, Etc. — 
How to Select the Kind Best Suited to Individual Use. 



© 



ROODING chicks by the natural method, while 
practical with small flocks and as an emergency 
measure, is entitled to scant consideration where 
large numbers are to be raised, or where it is 
desirable to do the work in a thoroughly efficient man- 
ner. This is true largely because the labor involved in 
hen brooding is out of all proportion to the results se- 
cured, though there are other important objections, such 
as the impossibility of securing a sufficient number of 
broody hens when they are wanted, the inevitable heavy 
losses due to enemies and to a variety of accidental 
causes, the necessity for keeping up an everlasting fight 
with lice, etc. In sharp contrast with this laborious and 
unpleasant method is the ease and comparative certainty 
of artificial brooding. With proper equipment the chick 
raiser is practically independent of season and weather, 
and the number of chicks that he can successfully care 
for is increasing indefinitely. 

Unquestionably chick raising is the most difficult 
part of the poultry keeper's work. To bring newly 
hatched broods through the danger period in good 
health and with minimum losses calls for some degree 
of skill and experience in meeting their exacting require- 
ments. This is true without regard to the method of 
brooding followed. It also is true that well-selected 
equipment will greatly reduce these difficulties and will 
almost entirely eliminate the element of chance. As a 
matter of fact, many of the difficulties experienced in 
raising chicks are self-imposed, growing directly out of 
failure to provide the right kind of brooders or enough 
of them, or to slackness in methods of general care. The 
chick raiser now has available for his use practical, re- 
liable, thoroughly tested brooding de- 
vices that are exactly adapted to his 
requirements, whether he is raising 
chicks on a small or a large scale, in 
cold or in warm weather, and so 
nearly automatic that even the inex- 
perienced can operate them with 
practical certainty of good results. 

Available brooding equipment in- 
cludes the humble "fireless," which is 
only one remove from the natural 
method in point of labor, cost, and 
uncertainty of results. There are in- 
dependent lamp-heated hovers that 
may be attached to almost any goods 
box, brooder case, or any sort of 
suitable building; various complete 
lamp-heated brooders for either in- 
door or outdoor use. Still more con- 
venient are the portable lamp-heated 
hovers that can be used anywhere in- 
doors without direct connection with 
the building where operated. Then 
there are electrically heated brood- 
ers, and colony hovers brooding hun- 
dreds of chicks in single flocks, using 
either coal, oil, gas, or gasoline for 



fuel. And finally, for those who wish to brood chicks 
under most trying winter conditions, up-to-date hot-water 
brooding systems are available. 

These various devices are manufactured by reliable 
concerns and are sold at prices that bring them within 
the reach of every one who broods chicks. Not all of 
these are equally desirable under given conditions, but 
just as in the purchase of incubators, if the buyer will 
confine his patronage to reputable concerns, purchasing 
standard, high-grade appliances such as he can secure at 
reasonable but not extremely low prices, he need have 
no difficulty in obtaining thoroughly satisfactory equip- 
ment. The only place where he is liable to make a seri- 
ous mistake is in choosing from the assortment of avail- 
able styles the one best suited to his conditions. 

It is quite important that this feature be carefully 
considered. Decision as to what to buy should in all 
cases be based on the adaptation of the appliance to one's 
particular requirements rather than on its general popu- 
larity. For example, colony hovers are in great favor at 
present and for the purpose of brooding large flocks of 
chicks they are indispensable. Many persons however, 
are buying these whose needs would be better served by 
an altogether different type of brooder about which per- 
haps comparatively little is heard. In this chapter prac- 
tically all kinds of standard brooding equipment are de- 
scribed, and their respective merits explained in sufficient 
detail to enable the inexperienced to select just the kind 
and the size required to give him the service best suited 
to his conditions. 

"Fireless" Brooders 

Almost every one with practical experience in raising 




FIG. 104— CHICKS LIKE THESE ARE ENTITLED TO A GOOD COMFORT- 
ABLE BROODER 



15 



66 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



chicks has had occasion at some time or other to keep 
small broods in baskets or boxes, without any source of 
warmth other than that afforded by the chicks them- 
selves. If the box is warmly lined, and bedded with 
fine absorbent material like short-cut alfalfa, is located 
in a warm place, and the chicks covered over with a light 
blanket or cloth except when taken out for feeding or 
exercise, their bodily warmth is sufficient to keep them 
quite comfortable and contented. 

Fireless brooders are simply these old familiar boxes 
or baskets made a little (and ONLY a little) more con- 
venient for use. When they are properly designed, so 
that the chicks are kept snug and warm with sufficient 
ventilation to meet their rather limited requirements, and 
when used in warm weather, or at least in a warm place,, 
and given the painstaking care and attention which brood- 
ing by this method demands, it is possible to raise chicks 
quite successfully in them. They represent the extreme 
limit in simplicity and low cost in brooding devices, but 
have distinct limitations. As emergency brooders or for 
small lots of chicks not regularly provided for, also in 
warm weather when the chicks require practically no 
brooding during the day, they serve a practical purpose, 
and everyone who raises chicks in numbers should keep 
a few on hand for such use. It is not wise to employ 
them in cold weather however, unless they can be kept 
in a heated room, and it is doubtful if they should ever 
be employed for anything but emergency service or where 
labor cost is a matter of indifference. 

There are good fireless brooders on the market, or 
they can readily be made at home if desired. A practi- 
cal, easily built brooder is shown in Fig. 106. It can be 
made any size from 15x15 inches (for about 25 chicks), 
to 24x24 inches, the latter size readily accommodating 50 
to 60 chicks. The sides of the hover should be about 12 
inches high and the entire top is to be covered with mus- 
lin as shown. This feature insures good ventilation. The 
hover may be made in various ways as convenient, the 
underside, next the chicks, usually being a single thick- 
ness of muslin. Over this may be placed pads of cotton 
batting, covered with cheese cloth to protect it and keep 
it from getting soiled. Use one or more pads as may 
be required to keep the chicks warm. A cheaper plan is 





FIG. 105— ANOTHER TYPE OF FIRELESS BROODER 

This illustration shows the simple, easily made fireless brooder in ufl« 
on Poultry Plant at Wisconsin University. 



FIG. 106— A HOMEMADE FIRELESS BROODER 
This brooder can be made from any suitable box. If 
new lumber is bought get light-weight material. Par- 
tition between hover and exercising compartment is of 
muslin. Box should be about 12 inches high with top 
covered with muslin tacked to movable frame. 

to place one to three inches of clover chaff, planer shav- 
ings or similar material on top of the muslin, as 
in illustration. 

The hover here is shown raised up, but when in use 
it rests upon the hover support, which consists of a strip 
of board extending around three sides of the enclosure. 
This hover support should be five to six inches wide so 
that when the floor is bedded down with two to three 
inches of fine litter, the chicks' backs will be against the 
underside of the pad. Pieces of board or wire cloth (not 
shown in illustration) should be fitted into the corners to 
round them out so as to prevent crowding. After the 
first day or two the chicks can be let out into the front 
or exercising compartment for feeding and exercise and 
after a few days, depending upon the outside temperature, 
they may be allowed to run out in a small pen in front 
of the brooder. 

Chick doors should be about an inch from the floor 
(not at floor level as shown in illustration) in order to 
retain the litter with which the floor is to be kept cov- 
ered at all times. In this brooder no pro- 
vision is made for adjusting the height of the 
hover, the proper distance between it and the 
floor being maintained by varying the thick- 
ness of the mat of litter previously mentioned. 
As the chicks grow larger and require more 
room, less and less litter will be used, in this 
way increasing the height of the hover 
chamber. 

Another type of fireless brooder that can 
readily be made by any person is shown in 
Fig. 105. In this brooder the sides of the 
hover compartment are heavily padded, ex- 
cept the front which is protected by a double 
thickness of felt. The hover consists of a 
light wooden frame, covered with felt to 
which can be added a light covering of cotton 
batting, planer shavings, or other material, if 
necessary. 

How to Use Fireless Brooders 

Owing to the danger of chicks crowding 
for warmth, which is especially liable to oc- 
cur among those that have no source of arti- 
ficial heat, it is never advisable to brood them 






THE SELECTION OE BROODING EQUIPMENT 



67 




FIG. 107 — ONE OF THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL LAMP- 
HEATED BROODERS 
This brooder has a lamp box underneath the brood- 
ing' compartment, and was for years a popular type of 
brooder, until the introduction of independent hovers 
such as shown in Figs. 108 and 109. 

in flocks larger than about 50 to 60, and as there must 
always be enough to keep each other warm, the flocks 
should not number less than about 20. The principal dif- 
ficulty in the use of these brooders is to get the chicks 
tiained to return to the hover for warmth, and this can 
only be done by giving them the closest attention for 
the first few days, letting them out just long enough 
to eat and then pushing them back under the hover and 
keeping them there. Later, a few minutes at a time, they 
niay be allowed to run out in the exercising compartment 
if a hover like the one shown in Fig. 106 is used. If the 
brooder has only a single compartment, the chicks should 
have a run in front of the brooder not over a foot wide 
at first, and must be watched and pushed back under the 
hover at the slightest sign of discomfort, and at frequent 
intervals whether they appear uncomfortable or not. 

Since the dark, heatless hover space does not offer 
any special attraction to chicks, the difficulty of making 
them "hoverwise" is greatly increased. Even after they 
appear to have become accustomed to the use of the 
hover they never can be entirely trusted, as they are more 
or less liable to take to huddling outside at any time, 
and hence must receive more or less attention during 
practically the entire brooding period. 

Owing to the lack of artificial heat, hovers in fireless 
brooders quickly get damp and it is important to have 
them taken out daily and sunned or dried before a stove 
or otherwise. If this is neglected the hover will not 
only be unsanitary and unhealthful, but the dampness and 
cold will add to the difficulty of training the chicks. The 
floor should always be heavily covered with suitable litter 
and cleaned often enough to keep it dry and free from 
odor. General methods of care and feeding for the chicks 
are the same as for those kept in any other style of 
brooder, and are given in detail in Chapters X and XI. 

Lamp-Heated Hovers 

Various styles of lamp-heated brooding devices are 
on the market, belonging, as a rule, to one of two gen- 
eral types — independent hovers, or complete brooders. 
The former consist simply of a brooding compartment 
having a metal or wooden top fusually round) supported 
on legs at a suitable height and with the space under- 
neath enclosed by means of a slashed hover curtain of 
felt or similar material. To the hover is attached a heat- 
ing system, with the lamp enclosed in a separate com- 
partment. The whole device is self-contained and more 



or less independent of the brooder, coop, or house in 
which it is to be operated. In "portable" hovers the 
brooding compartment and lamp box are built together 
and may be moved about at will. These hovers rest 
directly on the floor of the house or apartment in which 
they are operated. They have no connection with the 
enclosure and require no alterations of any kind to fit 
the building for their use. 

Lamp-heated hovers- of the type designated by such 
trade names as "Adaptable," "Universal," etc. (see Figs. 
108 and 109), are in great favor among successful chick 
raisers, especially where chicks are to be brooded in mod- 
erate-sized flocks. Hovers of this type have a detach- 
able lamp box, the bottom of which is several inches be- 
low the floor on which the hover stands. The lamp box 
is intended to be located on the outside of the house or 
compartment in which the chicks are confined, and re- 
quires an opening of suitable size in the brooder case or 
house wall to admit the heat pipe. These hovers may be 
operated indoors if desired, in which case an elevated 
floor must be provided for the hovers, the height being 
adjusted to the particular make of hover used. 

Hovers of this type may be used in connection with 
regular indoor or outdoor brooder cases, ready-made or 
homemade, or they may be attached to any suitable coop 
or house. They are moderate in cost and afford almost 
ideal conditions for brooding chicks in flocks of 100 or 
less. Equipped with regulators, a reasonably uniform 
temperature can be maintained, and they probably are as 
safe from fire as any lamp-heated device can be made. 
No matter how small the compartment in which the hover 
is confined the chicks are always sure of a constant sup- 
ply of fresh air which is drawn from the outside and pass- 
es through the heater where it is thoroughly warmed, 
afterward being forced gradually down among the chicks 
and finally out through the slits in the hover curtain. 

Since the lamp discharges its fumes on the outside, 
as the hovers are regularly installed, the air in the brooder 
is kept pure at all times. When the lamp box is located 
inside the house,- the fumes must be discharged indoors 
but this is not a serious matter in a room of good size. 
Lamp-heated hovers are used extensively in compartment 




^IG. 108 — HOVER WITH OUTDOOR LAMP BOX 
This hover is designed to be attached to any suitable 
brooder case, coop, or house. The lamp box is located 
outside the house and the lamp fumes are discharged on 
the outside through a specially designed fume pipe which 
keeps the lamp flame from blowing out. Courtesy of 
Prairie State Incubator Company. 



o8 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



brooder houses, with or without auxiliary heat. Where 
this method is followed each brood has separate pen or 
compartment and may be given just the temperature re- 
quired for best results, regardless of the others. A long 




FIG. 109— HOVER WITH MUSLIN COVERED 
ENCLOSURE 
"With lamp-heated hovers of usual size this en- 
closure should be about 3 feet square and 18 
inches high. This enclosure confines the chicks 
near the hover and prevents floor drafts from 
striking them. The muslin-covered top will keep 
the chicks warm under the hover even when the 
outside temperature drops quite low. 

brooder house equipped with hovers of this type is illus- 
trated and described in Chapter XII. 

Hover Enclosure for Cold Weather 

For cold weather use it frequently is desirable to en- 
close these hovers, using the convenient form of enclo- 
sure shown in Fig. 109. At the Maine Experiment Station 
where more or less cold weather is regularly experienced 
at the brooding season, a special type of enclosure has 
been developed. This is illustrated in Figs. Ill and 113, 
and is described as follows in Bulletin 471 of that in- 
stitution: 

"In planning this brooder the primary point aimed at 
was to make a "fresh air and pure air" brooder. With 
this idea in mind it was thought advisable to make the 
walls of the brooder in some degree permeable to air. 
To meet this requirement the walls and cover of the 
brooder are made of cloth. Essentially the brooder is a 
cloth box containing a hover, of the type in which the 
lamp fumes are conducted outside of the building by an 
exhaust pipe. 

"These brooders are built as a constituent part of the 
house which they occupy. Two brooders are placed in 
each colony house, one in each of the back corners of 
the building. In this way one end wall and the back 
wall of the building form two of the sides of each brooder. 
The remaining side and cover are made of cloth tacked 
on light wooden frames as shown in the working 
drawings. 

"The floor of the brooder stands 10 inches above the 
floor of the house. From the front of the brooder a 
sloping walk extends down to the house floor, reaching 
in width clear across the front of the brooder. The cloth 
front and side of the brooder are not permanently fixed in 
position but are removable panels held together and to 
the frame work by hooks and eyes. The cover is hinged 
in the middle in such a way that it can either be half 
opened, or entirely opened and folded back out of the 
way. In consequence of this arrangement it is possible 
to regulate with great nicety the amount of air which 
shall be admitted to the brooder. Either the front or the 
side panel may be tilted out as much as desired at the 



base, thus admitting air there. Furthermore, by partly 
opening a panel and the cover it is possible to insure that 
there shall be a circulation of air through the brooder at 
all times. 

"The hover used in this brooder is the "Universal," 
modified for present use so that the lamp is inside the 
house underneath the brooder rather than in a box out- 
side the house, as in the usual arrangement of this hover. 
The reason for this modification is that in this climate, 
where bad weather is likely to be experienced during the 
early part of the hatching season, with heavy winds, snow, 
and rain, it is much easier and more satisfactory to take 
care of the lamp inside the house than from a small box 
outside. Another modification is that in the hovers which 
are installed in these brooders an especially heavy insula- 
tion is put on top of the drum to reduce the loss of heat 
by radiation in extremely cold weather early in the 
spring. 

"One of the essential points about the brooder is 
its compactness in storage, and the fact that all the parts 
may be stored in the base of the brooder itself. In this 
way the labor expense of carrying parts back and forth 
from a storage house each year is avoided. To bring 
about this result the size of the base is so calculated that 
all parts of the brooder may be enclosed in it. It will be 
seen that the end of the brooder base containing door is 
removable, being held in place by buttons at the top. 
When the end of the brooding season is reached and there 
is no further use for the brooder that year, the side and 
front end panel of the brooder are removed, the canvas 
cover folded back and tacked to the wall of the building 
and the hover dismantled. All of the parts are then shoved 
under the brooder floor and the end put back in place 
again. The floor of the brooder is removable so that it 
and the floor underneath may be cleaned and disinfected. 
By removing its legs the hover may be stored in the 
brooder base along with the other parts, or if one does 
not desire to do this the hover may be suspended close 
up to the roof of the building. In that position it will 
be impossible for the birds to roost on it. Of course, all 




FIG. 110— LAMP HEATED HOVERS IN COMPART- 
MENT BROODER HOUSE 
These lamp-heated hovers are the same as the one 
shown in Fig. 108, modified to permit placing the 
lamp under an elevated hover floor. For plan of com- 
partment house equipped with ten hovers, see Chapter 
XII. Courtesy of Prairie State Incubator Company. 

movable parts should be taken from the hover before it 
is hung up in this way. These parts may be stored in 
the brooder base." 

Portable Lamp- Heated Hovers 
Portable hovers are quite similar to the lamp-heated 
hovers previously described, but are so designed that the 






THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 



69 



lamp box rests directly upon the brooder or house floor 
and hence can be set up in any kind of house or apart- 
ment where it is practicable to brood chicks, and without 
the necessity for cutting holes for the heat pipe, provid- 
ing raised floors, or making any other alterations. Hovers 




FIG. Ill— MAINE STATION INDOOR BROODER 
This illustration shows how hovers like the ones 
shown in Figs. 108 and 109 may be enclosed, for use 
where the chicks are to be brooded in cold weather and 
where unprotected hovers would not afford sufficient 
warmth without turning the flame extremely high. 
Courtesy of Maine Experiment Station. 

of this type are intended strictly for indoor use and give 
excellent service under reasonably favorable conditions. 
The lamps however, are rather closely confined, and when 
the flame is turned high there is danger of the lamp 
smoking or becoming overheated. For this reason porta- 
ble hovers are not recommended for use in severe weather 
unless they are operated in warmed rooms or are pro- 
vided with heat-retaining enclosures. A brooder house 
with auxiliary heat is a most desirable place in which to 
operate them, and if it is the intention to use these ap- 
pliances early in the season such a house should by all 
means be provided. 

In moderately cold weather portable hovers may be 
enclosed in muslin-covered cases as 
shown in Fig. 124 (illustrated with- 
out top in order to show hover in 
position). This enclosure consists of 
four frames, which should be about 
18 inches wide and 36 inches long, 
for hovers of average size. Use inch 
or inch-and-a-half strips of white 
pine, spruce, or similar light-weight 
wood that does not 
split readily, and 
cover with a good 
grade of muslin. 
The panels thus 
formed are hinged 
together at three 
corners, the fourth 




As long as the temperature of the house or room is 
60 degrees or over, it will not be necessary to enclose 
the hover, but when it goes below that point it is better 
to do so, especially for newly hatched broods. Even 
though the hover may be able to furnish sufficient heat 
to keep the chicks comfortable at lower temperatures, it 
will be necessary to keep a high flame in order to do it, 
involving the risk of overheating- the lamps and also 
using a great deal more oil than would be required with 
the hover suitably enclosed. If it is desired to make this 
enclosure ratproof it may be done by covering the panels 
on the inside with wire cloth. Placing the wire on the 
inside also protects the muslin from the chicks which are 
apt to pick holes through it. 

While it is practicable to brood chicks successfully 
where there are wide extremes between hover and room 
temperatures this cannot be considered a favorable con- 
dition. It unquestionably increases the attendant's trou- 
bles, and the chicks are apt to be stunted and injured by 
the alternate chilling and overheating. They also are 
liable to spend more time under the hovers than is good 
for them when they cannot go outside without instant 
discomfort. In continuous cold weather much better re- 
sults will be secured if portable hovers are operated in a 
house with some form of auxiliary heat. A good-sized 
room may be warmed to a fairly comfortable tempera- 
ture with a coa.1 stove or water boiler, doing so at com- 
paratively little expense, and greatly reducing the con- 
sumption of oil in brooder lamps. It may not be neces- 
sary to provide a hover enclosure under such conditions 
and it is much more convenient to care for the chicks 
without it. However, it always is desirable to surround 
the hover with some sort of guard for the first few days. 
It will be clear from the illustrations of portable 
hovers here shown, that they regularly discharge their 
lamp fumes inside the apartment in which they are 
operated. So long as the room or house is of good size 
and well ventilated, no harm will be done. When the 
hover is installed in a small building however, such as 
the average portable colony house, some provision must 
be made for conducting the fumes outdoors. A practi- 
cal way of doing this is to provide a galvanized iron pipe 
about 2 inches in diameter running it straight up or out 
through the side wall. The lower end 
of the pipe should be funnel-shaped 
and must be held securely in place 
an inch or two above the waste-pipe 
of the hover so that wind will not 
affect the lamp, and so that the in- 
creased draft caused by the long pipe 
will not "draw" the flame. Do not 
neglect providing a T on the outer 
end as in Fig. 108; 
it helps greatly in 
keeping the wind 
from blowing out 
the flame. 

The lamp in a 
portable hover 
should be tended 



FIG. 112— PORTABLE HOVER WITH ENCLOSED LAMP BOX 

having a hook in- This illustration shows a small lamp-heated portable hover with the lamp box regularly and kept 

stead, so that the under the hover. Courtesy of Prairie State Incubator Co. scrupulously clean. 

lamp 



frame can be 
folded compactly for storage when not in use. A small 
door should be provided in the front panel. The top 
may be a simple frame covered with muslin, with a hole 
for the waste-heat pipe from the hover, or better still 
may be made as shown in Fig. 109. 



The lamp bowl 
should not be filled more than about two-thirds full and 
should never be allowed to burn empty. A lamp either 
full or almost empty is more liable to smoke than one 
moderately full. If the lamp bowl is of limited capacity 
it is desirable to fill it at least once a day, and when the 



70 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



flame is turned high it may be necessary to do this twice 
daily. The flame usually gets its supply of air through 
screen-covered openings and it is highly important that 
these be kept clean and free from dust which otherwise 
will clog the screen and cause the lamp to smoke. As 
to capacity, the rule given on page 80 applies regularly 
to all sizes of portable hovers. Those most generally in 
use, such as are shown in Figs. 112, 114 and 124, are de- 
signed to accommodate about 100 newly hatched chicks 
i>r 65 to 75 older ones. 

Hovers Installed in Colony Houses 

While the cheapest method of providing comforta- 
ble brooding accommodations for small or medium-sized 
flocks is by the use of hovers installed in homemade 
brooder cases, the most satisfactory method for general 
use, especially for early hatches, is to install them in 
small colony houses, or houses especially designed for 
the purpose, such as those illustrated and described in 
Chapter XII. Where this is done the chicks will have 
plenty of floor space and when they must be confined 
indoors for days at r\ time, as is often necessary early in 
the season, they will continue to grow and thrive almost 
as well as when able to be outdoors all the time. Such 
houses may be built in various sizes to meet the needs 
of the individual chick grower, providing for one or more 
hov*ers as preferred. 

In a colony house 6x6 feet, which is about as small 
as it is practical to build them, it seldom is desirable to 
install more than one hover, but two can be used quite 
conveniently in houses 6x8 feet or larger. When operated 
in compartment brooder houses each hover should have a 
space 4 to 5 feet wide and 8 to 10 feet long. In perma- 
nent houses the hovers can either be located on a raisec 1 
floor or the floor of the passageway may be sunk 6 to 
8 inches below the main floor. With colony houses the 
usual plan is to set the house on runners, or block it up 




FIG. 113— MAINE STATION BROODER ENCLOSURE 
PARTIALLY DISMANTLED 

This illustration shows enclosure dismantled. Hover 
and parts are in lamp box. Top of enclosure is folded 
back against rear wall of house and fastened by 
wooden buttons. Courtesy of Maine Experiment Station. 

a few inche? off the ground so that the hover can rest 
direct'y on the house floor. 

Indoor and Outdoor Brooders 

Complete brooders, to be operated either indoors or 
outdoors, have been in use for many years. Indoor brood- 



ers are not now in much demand, as their place is large- 
ly filled by the independent hovers already described, 
used either with or without enclosures or cases, which, 
if required, usually are of homemade construction. Out- 
door brooders, however, are used in great numbers, par- 
ticularly where colony houses or permanent brooder 
houses are not available. 




FIG. 114— PORTABLE inGVER WITH OUTSIDE 
LAMP BOX 
This portable hover is similar to the one shown 
in Fig. 112, except that the lamp box is entirely 
outside of the hover whereas in the other it is 
underneath. Courtesy of Watson Manufacturing 
Company. 

One of the first really successful brooders adapted to 
outdoor use is illustrated in Fig. 107. In brooders of this 
type the lamp was located underneath the brooder. The 
floor occupied by the chicks was about ten inches from 
the .ground, and reached by means of an incline in front 
of the brooder. ' The lamp or brooder stove used to pro- 
vide heat had a chimney which came up close to, but did 
not touch, the underside of a metal sheet which was thus 
made quite hot and in turn warmed a current of air 
which was introduced from the outside, passing over the 
top surface of the metal and beneath the brooder floor. 
After being warmed the air passed up through a flue or 
pipe and was discharged under a hover, and forced down 
around the chicks afterward passing out through slits in 
the hover curtain, substantially as in the present type of 
hovers. 

This style of heater warmed the brooder floor as 
well as the air, and when the lamp was turned up strong, 
often gave so much bottom heat as to cause leg weak- 
ness. The elevated floor was another objectionable feat- 
ure, but the chief defect was the danger of overheating 
the lamp, especially in brooding chicks in cold weather 
when it was necessary to have a high flame. Brooders 
made by standard concerns now-a-days are practically 
fireproof, but many of the extremely cheap brooders of- 
fered for sale leave much to be desired in this respect, 
and if used at all should be located where they will not 
endanger valuable property. It is better to avoid all such 
brooders however, and buy only those that are known 
to be safe and reliable. Nowhere is it more true than 
in the purchase of brooder equipment, that "it is better to 
be safe than sorry." 

Some outdoor brooders have built-in heating systems, 
such as the one shown in Fig. 117. Others consist of a 
comparatively simple case equipped with an independent 
hover as in Fig. 115. A well-built brooder should give 
good satisfaction when used under reasonably favorable 
conditions, and will last for many years if stored in a dry 
place when not in service. It is always better to buy 
first-class brooders and take care of them, than to pur- 
chase cheap, flimsy ones that may not give good service 



THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 



71 



even when new, and whose limited usefulness at best is 
of only short duration. 

If necessary to economize in first cost, a practical 
plan is to secure a hover and build the case at home, 
which can readily be done by any one handy with tools. 
As usually built, outdoor brooders are about 3x6 feet, 
which makes them large enough for 100 newly hatched 
chicks or 75 after they are two or three weeks old. It 
is not considered practical to build brooders of larger 
size than the dimensions just given, and it is extremely 
unwise to attempt to crowd into any brooder more chicks 
than it is designed to accommodate. In buying brooders, 
or hovers for homemade brooders, be sure to get those 
that have sufficient heating capacity to keep the chicks 
warm in severe weather. 

An outdoor brooder should have at least three com- 
partments, which give the chicks some opportunity to 
choose the temperature best suited to their requirements. 
These conditions are best secured by a hover compart- 
ment about three feet square, where the temperature un- 
der the hover can be kept in the neighborhood of 100 
degrees at first, lowering it as the chicks grow older. 
Around or in front of the hover, depending upon its 
shape, there should be a space large enough to accom- 
modate all the chicks without crowding. To this space 
they can escape if the hover becomes too warm and in it 
they are to be fed for the first few days. Connected with 
this should be an exercising compartment, also three feet 
square. This will be warmed somewhat from the heating 
system in the hover end, but can be opened up as de- 
sired to give the chicks air and gradually to harden them 
off before turning them outdoors. 

If the brooder is to be used outdoors in stormy 
weather it is desirable to provide covered runs as shown 
in Fig. 115, where the chicks can get out to scratch and 
exercise without being exposed to wind, rain, or cold. 
This run may be any convenient size, but should seldom 
be smaller than 3x6 or 8 feet. If a covered run is not 
provided there must be some sort of an enclosure to keep 
the chicks within bounds at first, to prevent their straying 
away and getting lost, and under many conditions this en- 
closure is required to protect them from enemies of vari- 
ous kinds. Such enclosure may take the form of the one 
shown in Fig. 115, which is covered on top as well as 
sides, or may be like the one illustrated in Fig. 131. 

Location for Outdoor Brooder 

The brooder and its covered run or yard should have 
as dry a location as possible. There is no better place 
for them than a smooth, closely clipped lawn, if such is 
available. If the brooder is moved frequently to a new 
location the chicks will do no harm to the grass, and this 
will provide much of the green feed that is so essential 
a part of their ration. An additional advantage in brood- 
ing newly hatched chicks on the lawn is that they are 
within easy reach and can be kept under observation all 
the time, which is highly important during the first few 
weeks of their lives. When they are past the danger 
point and need no longer be confined to small runs, they 
may be moved to some other location where they can 
have more room. Fields covered with high grass or 
weeds should be avoided but a few clumps of weeds or 
bushes to which the chicks can have access for protection 
from the hot sun, also from hawks, crows, and other 
enemies, are desirable. 

Protection for the brooder and the chicks often does 
not receive the attention that should be given to this im- 
portant detail. Not only is it easier to operate the 



brooder when suitably sheltered, but the chicks will do 
better. Early in the season the brooder should be 
placed in the shelter of a building or other substantial 
windbreak and, if necessary, the sides of the run should 
be covered with burlap. Still cold will not harm the 
chicks seriously after they become hoverwise, but a run 
swept by a raw, cold wind will cause great discomfort 
and generally results in their staying indoors much of 
the time, to their great disadvantage. 

It may be worth mentioning in this connection that 
outdoor brooders can be conveniently operated indoors 
early in the season, if there is a building or even an open 
shed in which they can be placed. In such a location a 
small pen or run can be provided for the chicks so that 
they can get out for exercise regardless of the weather, 
whereas, if the brooder is out in the open, the chicks 
may have to be confined to its narrow limits for days at 
a time. The added convenience and comfort to the at- 
tendant, who will be able to care for the brooder and the 
chicks without being exposed to storms, are in them- 
selves a sufficient reason for keeping the brooder in- 




FIG. 115— OUTDOOR BROODER AND COVERED RUN 
Outdoor brooders are used by many, especially after 
settled weather has arrived. Covered runs are highly 
desirable for additional protection after the chicks are 
old enough to run outdoors. The brooder alone will not 
afford sufficient room for them, when confined on ac- 
count of sudden cold snaps, rain, etc. 

doors at this season, if possible. In summer the brooder 
should be placed in the shade, as it is apt to become over- 
heated if exposed to the direct rays of the sun. 

Who Should Use Lamp-Heated Hovers and Brooders 

While the better grades of brooders and hovers such 
as have just been described, have been brought to a high 
degree of efficiency, and leave scarcely anything to be 
desired in the way of practical, convenient, and reason- 
ably automatic brooding devices, they all are open to the 
important objection that they are capable of brooding 
flocks of only moderate size. Where chicks are to be 
raised in large numbers it is highly desirable to brood 
them in as large flocks as are practicable, in order to 
reduce the labor cost. To meet this demand and to keep 
as low as possible the cost of equipment and houses, col- 
ony hovers, each with a brooding capacity of many hun- 
dreds of chicks, have been introduced and have in a 
short time attained a hign degree of popularity. While 
these huge brooders have been an unqualified success 
and are now regarded as indispensable wherever chicks 
are extensively raised, it is not probable that they can 
or should entirely displace lamp-heated brooders. Each 
has a distinct place to fill in practical and economical 
brooding. 



72 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




No one questions the fact that the person who is 
operating on a small scale will find lamp-heated brooders 
better adapted to his requirements. As his plant devel- 
ops and his flocks grow larger there will come a time 
when, in the interest of economy and efficiency, he clear- 
ly should change over to colony hovers. Just when that 
point is reached will depend upon a number of considera- 
tions and is a 
matter for indi- 
vidual decision. 
One of the 
; most important 
advantages pos- 
sessed by lamp- 
heated brooding 
devices is that 
chicks in the 
c o m p a r a tively 

;_ ■' •- small flocks made 

FIG. 116— NONCROWDING PARTITION necessary by this 
DOOR FOR BROODERS method ofbrood- 

With these noncrowding doors in • -ii j mnc h 

the partition between hover and ex- m S will ao mucn 
ercising- compartments there will be better, as a rule, 
no corners on either side for the , , , 

chicks to crowd into. than when they 

are herded to- 
gether in great numbers. The death rate will be lower 
and the chicks will have better individual opportunities 
for growth and development. While remarkably good 
results often are reported in colony hover brooding, the 
general accuracy of the above comparison has never 
been seriously questioned. It follows that those who 
wish to grow valuable chicks with small loss, and with 
the best opportunities for individual growth and develop- 
ment, will continue to use lamp-heated hovers in spite 
of the admittedly greater cost of brooding them in this 
way. 

Similarly those who may be raising comparatively 
large numbers of chicks but whose seperate broods are 
small, will find lamp-heated hovers well suited to their 
use. For illustration, the person who has incubators of 
250-egg capacity or less, and who has only a single ma- 
chine hatching at a time, will find that he can brood his 
chicks to much better advantage in lamp-heated hovers 
than with colony hovers. In making a choice of brood- 
ing equipment it is worth considering that the best lamp- 
heated hovers have been brought to a degree of mechan- 
ical perfection which makes it possible to operate them 
with the slightest of attention. A further advantage is 
that while fuel for colony hovers sometimes is difficult 
to secure, kerosene can be obtained in practically every 
section of the country. 

Colony Hovers 

Colony hovers, while of comparatively recent intro- 
duction, have been developed to a good degree of effi- 
ciency and are in high favor among those who have 
large numbers of chicks to brood and who wish to do 
this in the cheapest and easiest manner. With these 
hovers chicks may be brooding in flocks of many hun- 
dreds and without much more labor than would be re- 
quired in caring for one small lamp-heated brooder. Sin- 
gle flocks of 1,000 chicks or more having been brooded 
successfully with colony hovers, though the present ten- 
dency is to discount extreme claims as to brooding capac- 
ity. Under ordinary conditions 500 chicks are considered 
enough even for the largest hovers, and many prefer not 
to exceed 300 or 350. 

Various types of colony hovers have been developed 



and are offered for sale, the chief differences between 
them being due to the nature of the fuel employed. They 
all provide a warm brooding room, in any part of which 
the chicks will be fairly comfortable, and with a circle 
or zone near the stove or heater where a uniform, brood- 
ing temperature is to be maintained by the action of a 
regulator controlling drafts or fuel supply. This brood- 
ing zone usually is at a little distance from the heater 
and its diameter is determined by the size and elevation 
of the canopy or dome. In some instances, as in the case 
of the heater shown in Fig. 119, no hover is used, but 
only a comparatively small heat deflector, the tempera- 
ture about the heater being maintained at a point suffi- 
ciently above the brooding temperature so that the chicks 
will not collect here, but 'will gather in a circle outside 
the too-warm zone. 

During the day the chicks scatter all over the room, 
exercising and scratching for food in the litter and read- 
ily finding their way back to the vicinity of the heater 
when in need of warmth, provided they have been prop- 
erly trained. There is, however, the same necessity of 
teaching them to find their way to the source of heat as 
in the case of lamp-heated hovers — greater in fact, owing 
to the much more serious consequences that are apt to 
ensue if a flock of several hundred chicks should begin 
huddling in some corner instead of spreading out con- 
tentedly in an open ring in the comfortable temperature 
near the stove or heater. 

The colony hover was developed, or at any rate at- 
tained its first popularity, on the Pacific Coast, where oil 
or distillate-burning heaters have been in general use for 
a number of years. These hovers are installed in suitable 
rooms with the oil supply on the outside, or at least at 
a distance from the burners. With suitable thermostatic 
control of fuel they will maintain a fairly uniform tem- 
perature in the brooding zone and throughout the room, 
and are easily regulated and controlled. 

The number of chicks that can be brooded with a 
colony hover is determined as much by the size of the 
room in which it is operated as by the capacity of the 




FIG. 117— HOT AIR OUTDOOR BROODER 
This brooder has an enclosed lamp and a "built- 
in" heating' system, and affords a comfortable home 
for outdoor chicks. Courtesy of Des Moines Incuba- 
tor Co. 

heater. By regulating fuel consumption and adjusting 
height of canopy or hover, the brooding temperature can 
be extended far enough beyond the heater to give a cir- 
cle sufficiently large to accommodate many hundreds of 
chicks. Regardless of heating capacity however, there 
is a practical limit to the number that can be kept in a 
loom of given size and it is just as objectionable to over- 
crowd in a brooding room as to do so under a lamp- 
heated hover. It is difficult to give a general rule gov- 
erning colony hover capacity, since something depends 
upon the type of hover, and more perhaps upon the 



THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 



73 




FIG. 118— CHOOSE A PROTECTED LOCATION FOR OUTDOOR BROODERS 

A southern expose with a windbreak of trees on the west and north is extra 

desirable for early season brooding. 

weather and whether the chicks have an opportunity to 
get outdoors or not, also the care and attention that they 
receive. In general, it may be said that a house providing 
100 square feet of floor space will afford sufficient room 
for a flock of 400 to 500 chicks for the first 10 to IS days, 
after which they should have additional floor space for 
exercise, unless the weather is mild and they can spend 
most of the day outdoors. 

In sections where hard coal is obtainable, colony 
hovers with stoves for burning this fuel are quite popu- 
lar. Several such hovers installed in a long brooder 
house, are shown in Fig. 122. They are low in cost, the 
fuel is comparatively inexpensive, and they give excel- 
lent service. They are not so easy to operate as the oil 
or distillate-burning hovers, nor are they as desirable 
as the latter in the south where the extremes between 
night and day temperature are wide, and where it is diffi- 
cult to check a coal fire sufficiently to keep the room 
temperature within the proper limits during the day, 
without having it go out. Efforts to operate coal-burning 
hovers with soft coal have been made with but limited 
success, as their fuel capacity is too small to carry a 
good fire through a cold night. If hard coal or coke is 
not readily obtainable it usually will be better to pur- 
chase kerosene or distillate-burning heaters instead. An- 
other type of brooder suitable for large flocks, and one 
that has been in successful use for a number of years, 
is the Cornell gasoline brooder. This brooder was de- 
veloped by the Poultry Department of Cornell University. 
Gasoline is far from being popular as fuel but it has 
some advantages, and if properly handled is safe. 

As poultry keepers have begun to favor colony flocks 
of more conservative size, manufact- 
urers have made an effort to effect 
a compromise between the small 
lamp-heated hovers and the require- 
ments of colony brooding, retaining 
kerosene as fuel. The hover shown 
in Fig. 120 is one of this type. If not 
operated under too extreme condi- 
tions, they give good results. 

How to Use Colony Hovers 

Colony hovers can be used success- 
fully at almost any season, though 
if operated in cold weather it is nec- 
essary to provide especially warm 
quarters. The average coal-burning 
hover does not have sufficient fuel 



struction in severe winter weather, 
and in the case of oil or gasoline- 
heated hovers the fuel cost in such 
houses is practically prohibitive. Al- 
most invariably it is true economy to 
build with double walls so as to re- 
tain Jieat and reduce fuel consump- 
tion. 

Flocks of 300 to 500 chicks can be 
successfully brooded in a house lOx 
10 feet or 12x12 feet, provided the 
chicks can spend most of the day out- 
doors after they are a couple of weeks 
old. For use early in the season how- 
ever, more floor space should be pro- 
vided, doing so either by making the 
room larger, say 16x16 feet, or by 
providing a two-room house. There are several reasons 
why the latter is much better than having the floor space 
all in one large room. In the first place if the room i« 
large enough to provide comfortably for the growing 
chicks it will be unnecessarily large for newly hatched 
broods, and since these must have a comfortable tem- 
perature more or less all over the room, the cost of 
heating will be much greater than is necessary. Another 
important objection to rooms of large size is the danger 
from floor drafts which are almost unavoidable in cold 
weather, and as a result of which epidemics of colds and 
roup are liable to break out, often causing great losses. 
These difficulties are largely overcome by the 
use of a two-room house such as is illustrated and de- 
scribed in Chapter XII. The brooding room affords com- 
fortable quarters for the chicks during the first two 
weeks, after which they are allowed access to an ad- 
joining room of about the same size, which will be 
warmer than outdoors, but decidedly cooler than the 
brooding room. This arrangement affords an opportunity 
for the chicks to get hardened off before they are turned 
out, and provides ample floor space for them if they 
must be confined indoors on account of cold or stormy 
weather. The hover room is practically free from floor 
drafts, and it will cost only about half as much to heat 
it as would be the case if the entire space were in one 
room. The brooding room should be built with double 
walls and windows that can be made tight, but the ex- 
ercising room need only have single walls, and the front 
should be arranged so that it can be thrown open when 
weather conditions permit, thus giving the chicks prac- 
tically outdoor temperature without exposing them to 




FIG. 119— OIL, BURNING COLONY HOVER 



No hover at all is used with this colony brooder, which is readily regulated 
, so as to maintain a "zone" of correct brooding temperature at a reasonable 
capacity to heat a large house with distance from the heater. This is indicated by the position of the chicks in 
eJtic»1«» iirollc and o-pnprallv rhean rnn illustration. Heater burns kerosene or distillate and will successfully brood 
single wails ana generally cneap con- severa i hundred chicks at one time. 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



storms, rain, snow, or high winds, and without cooling 
down the brooding room. 

Colony hovers usually are located in the center of 
the blooding room. They should be fired up and thorough- 
ly tested so that the operator can be certain that he will 
be able to maintain a fairly uniform temperature before 
entrusting chicks to them. 'When the chicks are first 
placed under the hover they should be confined by a strip 
of galvanized wire cloth. This should be about 18 inches 
wide, and long enough to form a complete circle about 
the hover at a distance of at least three feet. This guard 
should be drawn up at first, so that the circle does not 
extend more than about a foot or so beyond the hover, 
but after the chicks become familiar with their sur- 
roundings and have learned where to go for warmth the 
circle can be enlarged. 

When certain that the chicks can be trusted to return 
to the hover promptly when uncomfortable, the guard 
may be entirely removed, though it is a wise precaution 




FIG. 120— OIL HEATED COLONY HOVER 
This brooding- device is provided with a hover under 
chicks gather for warmth. It does not heat the room to 
temperature as the brooder shown in Fig. 119, and is, 
more economical in the use of fuel. 

to continue to draw it up around the hover at night, so 
that the chicks cannot stray off into corners and huddle 
there as they sometimes do even after they seem to be 
thoroughly trained. It is important to give these large 
flocks careful attention, and the greatest pains must be 
taken never to let the fire go out in cold weather or to 
permit the temperature to drop too low at night, either 
of which is liable to start the crowding that is so great- 
ly to be feared. As a further precaution it is wise to 
round out the corners of the brooding room using wire 
netting, pieces of prepared roofing, or anything else that 
will answer the purpose. 

Hot Water Brooding Systems 

Where large numbers of chicks are to be brooded in 
cold weather many persons prefer to use hot water pipe 
systems. These have the disadvantages of exceeding all 
others in first cost, and their operating season is com- 
paratively short, as it seldom is desirable to brood chicks 
by this method in warm weather. Hot water brooding 
systems are fairly easy to operate however, when proper- 
ly installed, and the advantage of having many hundreds 
of chicks in comparatively small flocks under one roof 
with one heater or furnace for all, is especially import- 
ant in cold weather. 

There are two general systems of pipe-heated brood- 



ers, each with its own advantages. The method most 
commonly used in New England is what is known as the 
open-pipe system where the pipes are entirely exposed 
or covered only with a cloth-covered frame which is laid 
over the pipes, this being done in the case of newly 
hatched chicks or when it is desirable to raise the tem- 
perature for any given pen. No hover cloths are pro- 
vided and the temperature is kept fairly high throughout 
the room, the chicks getting up close to the pipes for 
added warmth at night and as needed during the day. A 
full description of such a brooder house is given in 
Chapter XII. 

The covered-pipe system has various forms, from 
overhead pipes with a tight hover over the top, to pipes 
placed under the floor and confined in a box in order to 
heat air, which then is discharged under a round or square 
hover, adjustable in height and provided with hover cloths 
to confine the heat, the chicks being warmed by a hot- 
air circulating system very much as in lamp-heated hovers. 
Both systems give good results when 
properly managed, the open system being 
the cheaper to install, probably a little 
more expensive to operate, and calling for 
pretty exact control of room temperature. 
It is not practical to install pipe-heated 
systems in small houses. Colony hovers or 
lamp hovers with auxiliary heat are more 
desirable as well as much cheaper. 

Electrically Heated Brooders 

Electrically heated brooders probably are 
the most convenient type of brooding equip- 
ment available. Such brooders are easy to 
operate and when of correct design and pro- 
vided with reliable regulators require prac- 
tically no attention.. As usually made they 
may be attached to an ordinary lamp socket, 
and have a regulator which automatically 
turns the current on and off as necessary to 
maintain the desired temperature. No at- 
tention whatever is needed aside from ad- 
justing the regulator for more or less heat 
as occasion requires. Reliable appliances of 
this sort will maintain an almost uniform temperature 
under ordinary conditions, and as the current is only on 
when the heat falls below the point for which the regu- 
lator is set, there is no waste of current. If favorable 
rates can be obtained it is possible to brood chicks in 
this convenient, labor-saving way as economically as with 
oil or gas. Since there are no lamps to fill or clean, no 
coal or ashes to handle, no danger from fire, and no 
lamp or stove to taint the air, it is possible to operate 
electric brooders where it would not be desirable to use 
any other kind. A brooder of this type is illustrated 
in Fig. 121. 

Homemade Brooders 

There is little demand for plans for homemade brood- 
ers nowadays and still less excuse for them. It is pos- 
sible for any one who wishes to do so to build a brooder 
of the general type as the one shown in Fig. 107, using 
a similar heating method, but such brooders are so in- 
ferior to those now made by reliable manufacturers, and 
so unsafe as regards fire, that there is no good reason for 
giving them any consideration. 

Most manufacturers furnish complete heating and 
brooding systems or independent hovers for installation 
in homemade brooder cases, for either indoor or outdoor 
use, and it is entirely practical to use them in this way. 



which the 
as high a 
therefore, 



THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 



75 



/ 



Local tinsmiths cannot make them as cheaply nor as well 
as those regularly manufactured, and the use of a make- 
shift heating system is unwise. With no other purpose 
in view than to safeguard the interests of the chick 

grower, we most 
nr< earnestly advise 

against wasting time 
or money on home- 
made brooding out- 
fits, other than out- 
door or indoor 
cases to be equipped 
with hovers or 
brooder heaters es- 
pecially designed for 
such use. There is 
too much at stake 
both in the chicks 




BY 



FIG. 121— HOVER HEATED 
ELECTRICITY 

This hover has a heating plane in that are brooded 

the top and is a most convenient j • t t j . 

brooding device where current can a ' l c "anger 

be obtained at a reasonable rate, to valuable property 

It is equipped with a regulator ... . . 

which automatically cuts out the which results from 

current when the temperature goes .i,„ „„„ „r i„„-„ 

above the desired point. the Uie of lam P" 

heated brooders of 
the usual homemade construction, to warrant any one in 
experimenting with such devices. 

No Economy in Skimping On Brooder Equipment 

It is scarcely possible to overemphasize the import- 
ance of providing sufficient brooding capacity for the 
chicks that are to be raised. The average chick raiser 
almost invariably is short on brooders at the time when 
he needs them most, which is false economy in about its 
worst form. There is ho disputing the fact that millions 
of chicks die from exposure every season — chicks that 
would have lived and returned to their owners a substan- 
tial profit, if only they had been properly brooded. The 
incubator often is unjustly blamed for hatching out 
weakly chicks that could not be raised when, as a 
matter of fact, they were sturdy and vigorous when 
hatched but were sacrificed to their owner's neglect 
to provide suitable brooders for them — none at all 
in some instances, and in others cheap, inferior 
makes with inadequate heating capacity, resulting in 
the chicks being exposed to low or irregular tem- 
peratures that they could not possibly endure. 

In still other cases first-class brooders may be 
provided but not in sufficient numbers, so that the 
chicks are injuriously crowded, and perhaps are re- 
moved from the brooder to make room for younger 
lots weeks before they should be deprived of arti- 
ficial heat. Overcrowding of brooders is a most 
common practice, and while a little slower in action, 
is about as serious in its final effect as having no 
brooders at all. The wise chick raiser will learn 
the actual capacity of his brooders and will then 
either lin-.it his hatching to that number, or will 
provide the additional equipment needed in good 
time, even though to do so may necessitate spend- 
ing more money for the purpose than is convenient. 
Skimping on brooders is in no sense economical or 
practical, though it is extraordinarily difficult to get be- 
ginners, and even many experienced growers, to realize 
how much they lose and how seriously they imperil their 
whole poultry enterprise, by such a pennywise policy. 



How to Estimate Brooding Capacity Required 

So far as the beginner is concerned, it is possible 
that a good deal of this deficiency in brooding equip- 
ment is due to the fact that he docs not understand just 
what his requirements are going to be, nor what is a 
reasonable number of chicks to place in a brooder. 
Speaking generally, hover capacity may be figured on 
the basis of floor space following the rules for doing 
this which will be found on page 80. The capacity of 
the average round hover, measuring 20 to 24 inches in 
diameter, is in the neighborhood of 65 to 75 chicks at 
three weeks old. With these rules or estimates for gen- 
eral guidance, it should be a simple matter for the most 
inexperienced to determine the amount of hover space 
he will need for a given incubator capacity. Counting 
the average hatch at about two-thirds of the egg capacity 
of the machine, which is a reasonable basis on which to 
figure, a 100-egg incubator will require one good lamp- 
heated hover to take care of a hatch. For a 150 to 200- 
egg machine two such hovers will be needed, and for a 
350 to 400-egg machine three hovers, or one colony hover 
will be required, the latter being large enough to take 
the entire hatch from two such incubators when neces- 
sary. These estimates apply to a single hatch in 
each case. 

Chicks can seldom be- weaned from artificial heat un- 
til they are over four weeks old, and in early spring will 
need to be brooded for six weeks or more. Hence, if the 
incubators are being run continuously there must be 
brooder capacity for two successive hatches, or double 
the number required for one hatch. This is where a 
great many chick growers make a most serious mistake, 
failing, as they do, to provide brooders for the second 
lot. This makes it necessary to put the first chicks into 
cold brooders when only about three weeks old — a step 
that is practically certain to result in heavy losses, es- 




FIG. 122— COLONY HOVERS IN LONG POULTRY HOUSE 
Illustration shows several coal-burning hovers installed in a 
long house. For this purpose a regular brooder house may be 
used or a laying house divided by means of suitable temporary 
partitions. 



pecially in the early part of the season. Either provide 
the extra brooders or hovers needed, or delay the second 
hatch until the first lot of chicks can be removed to cold 
brooders without injury. 



CHAPTER X 



Care and Management of Brooder Chicks 

When to Take the Chicks From the Incubator — How to Determine Capacity of Any Brooder — Teaching Chicks to 

Use the Hover — How to Make and Use Cold Brooders— Importance of Litter and 

What Kind to Use — Labor-Saving Methods. 



X 



T IS assumed in this chapter that the chick grower 
has selected the brooding equipment best suiceel 
to his requirements, and that he has looked ahead 
and has purchased it well in advance of the time 
when it will be needed, so that there will be ample time 
in which to set it up and test it out before entrusting 
valuable chicks to its care. That is assuming a good deal 
too much in many instances, for unpreparedness is the 
average poultry keeper's besetting sin, and he frequent- 
ly pays dearly for it. The beginner especially, and all 
who are trying out new equipment, should realize the 
importance of thorough testing in order to learn just 
what results can reasonably be expected, doing this in 
ample time so that any adjustments that may be needed 
can be made before the brooder or the hover, as the 
case may be, must be put into active service. The too 
common plan of placing 
chicks in a brooder whose 
limitations are not known, 
expecting to be able to 
meet conditions as they 
arise, is responsible for 
enormous losses each year 
— losses that might readily 
be prevented with a little 
forethought and timely 
preparation. 

In testing out a new 
brooder or hover it is not 
enough to be sure that it 
is in good general working 
order, that the lamp burns 
steadily and evenly, and 
that it heats up readily. 
All this is important; but 

it is even more important, from a practical point of view, 
to learn what the brooder will NOT do. Every brooding 
device, of whatever kind, is capable of supplying just so 
much heat, and when the outside temperature drops below 
a certain limit it is impossible for it to maintain the proper 
brooding temperature. Just what that limit is will de- 
pend not only upon the capacity of the heating system, but 
also upon the conditions under which it is used. This in- 
formation each operator must secure himself, and it can 
not be too plainly stated that until he has done this he is 
not ready to begin brooding chicks. The operator has only 
himself to blame for the trouble and losses that he is 
about certain to meet if this precaution is neglected. 

The importance of learning the limitations of what- 
ever brooding devices are used is all the greater because 
average expectations regarding them are entirely too 
high; that is, more is expected and demanded of them 
than is reasonable or possible. The conditions that the 
brooder must meet, especially early in the season, are 
hard enough at best, what with the cold, raw winds, sud- 
den and extreme cold snaps, belated snow storms, and 
days of continuous rain that then are to be expected in 
most sections of the country. Winter fires may have to 
be resorted to in dwellings, but still it is expected that a 

76 




FIG. 123— PORTABLE HOVER WITH "WIRE GUARD 
Enclosed within a circular wire guard chicks cannot 
stray away from hover and get chilled. If one-half or 
three-fourth-inch mesh netting cannot be secured it will 
be safer to use galvanized wire cloth. Courtesy of Buck- 
eye Incubator Company. 



little, one-inch lamp flame will furnish sufficient heat to 
maintain a temperature of approximately 100 degrees un- 
der a hover that has only a thin board wall for protec- 
tion against storms and perhaps almost zero tempera- 
tures. The better class of brooding devices are marvel- 
ously efficient in the use of the comparatively small 
amount of heat available, but there is always a limit 
beyond which they cannot reasonably be expected to go 
in supplying warmth, especially in the case of broods of 
newly hatched chicks which require much higher tempera- 
tures under the hover than those that are several weeks 
old. 

All brooder tests should be made with a thermome- 
ter in the room as well as under the hover, and a written 
record should be kept of the temperature in both loca- 
tions. If this is done the brooder's natural limits will 

quickly be learned and 
there need be no uncertain- 
ty then as to just what 
may reasonably be expect- 
ed in the future. With the 
flame turned as high as it 
is desirable to have it, if 
the hover heat can be kept 
up to 100 only when the 
room or outside tempera- 
ture is at or above SO, 
then that must be accepted 
as the brooder's limit, and 
if it is to be operated at 
lower temperatures some 
means of conserving the 
heat must be provided. The 
worst thing that can be 
done is to risk chicks in 
the brooder when it is known that the temperature to 
which it is to be exposed will go well below its limit — 
"taking a chance" on their coming through alive. The 
operator can depend upon it that if his brooder, in a 
definite test, fails to maintain sufficient heat when the 
outside or room temperature drops below a certain point, 
whether that is 40, 30 or 20 degrees, it will always fall 
short thereafter at about that point. 

What to Do When the Brooder Does Not Heat Up 

Most complaints in regard to the brooder's failing to 
heat up are due to unreasonable demands — to expecting 
it to maintain brooding temperatures under impossible 
conditions. There are, however, various measures that 
may be taken to help out in emergencies, and there are 
some things that must not be done. The heating system, 
whether it is oil, gas, or coal, can never be forced with 
safety. If the lamp' or heater, working at a safe limit, 
will not furnish enough heat to meet necessary require- 
ments, then there is only one thing to do, and that is to 
find some way to save more of the heat. NEVER take 
chances on a smoking or overheated lamp by turning the 
flame beyond what is known to be the safety point. 

The simplest way to handle an outdoor brooder that 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROODER CHICKS 



77 



is not furnishing sufficient heat is to get it indoors where 
it will be warmer and where it will be protected from 
wind. If that cannot be done it may be possible to put 
it in a more sheltered place such as setting it close to a 
building or other windbreak, banking up around it with 
leavcc. rtraw, planer shavings, or anything that will stop 
the circulatfon of the air around it and conserve heat. 
Practically all ventilation in the brooder compartment can 
be cut off under such conditions, as there will still be a 
sufficient circulation of air to meet all necessary require- 
ments. If there are two or more flocks of the same age 
to be protected, it may be practical to put them both to- 
gether in one brooder so that their bodily heat may rein- 
force that from the lamp. If nothing else can be done, 
the brooder can at least be covered with blankets, rugs 
or pieces of carpet. 

Where hovers are used it always is wise to have a 
few cloth-covered enclosures such as the one shown in 
Fig. 109 in order to be prepared for emergencies, and 
these enclosures also can be helped out under extreme 
conditions by banking up with planer shavings, etc., as 
shown in Fig. 128. In banking up or blanketing any sort 




FIG. 124 — MUSLIN COVERED HOVER ENCLOSURE 
Where there is danger of floor drafts, a hover 
enclosure for newly hatched chicks like the above 
is better than open wire as shown in Fig. 123. 



of brooder or hover there is danger of cutting off the 
supply of air needed by the lamp, or reducing the free cir- 
culation of air required to keep it cool, and pains should 
always be taken to see that this does not occur. Many 
smoked and overheated lamps result from this cause. 

All such precautions as have been here suggested are 
merely makeshifts intended to meet sudden and unex- 
pected emergencies, and must not be relied upon regu- 
larly. They add greatly to the labor of caring for the 
chicks and are only fairly satisfactory at best. If the 
brooder is going to require frequent helping out in this 
way it will be much more practical to set it aside for 
warmer weather and provide some oth<?r appliance that 
will supply enough heat to meet the requirements. 

Under all ordinary conditions the thing to do where 
chicks are to be brooded early in the season, is to have 
a permanent brooder house, warmly built and equipped 
with some source of anxiliary heat if necessary. Regu- 
lar hot-water heating systems are best and cheapest in 
large houses, but in small ones a coal-burning stove will 
give good satisfaction. This will keep the room fairly 
comfortable and make it comparatively easy for the hover 
or brooder lamp to keep up the brooding temperature, 
and will afford much more favorable conditions for the 
chicks when out of the hover. 



When to Take the Chicks Off 

If the incubator can be spared for the purpose and 
the chicks are not too much crowded, it is desirable to 
leave them in the nursery for about 24 hours after they 
are all out. If 
it is necessary to 
reset the machine 
at once they may 
be taken out as 
soon as they are 
all dry, but 
where this is 
done, careful at- 
tention must be 
given to prevent 
their chilling. 
When chicks 
must be taken 
from the ma- 
chine at 
time, 



4\ 

As 
As 

A\ 

FIG. 125— 



A 


9 


A\ 


A 


A\ 


10 


/*N 


4\ 


A\ 


11 


A 


A 


A 


12 


A 


4\ 


A 


13 


A 


A 


As 


14 


A 


A 


Ais 


15 


A 


A 


A 


16 


A* 


A 






i 



METHOD OF MARKING 
CHICKS 
A hole punched in the web of the 
chick's foot is a convenient way of 
t u : _ permanently marking the chick. The 
hole will never grow over, and chicks 
the best so marked can always be identified. 
There are 15 different combinations 
plan is to put possible, as shown in this illustration. 

them in warmly 

lined baskets or boxes and keep them covered up and in 
a warm place for a day or so. If it is not practicable to 
do this, especial pains must be taken to have a reliable 
brooder or hover ready for them, thoroughly warmed up 
and accurately regulated to incubator temperature. If 
possible, the brooder should be in a warm 
room where the chicks will not be ex- 
posed to cold the instant they get outside 
the hover. 

Whenever they are moved, the chicks 
must be carefully protected against chill- 
ing. A warmly lined basket or a tray such 
as is shown in Fig. 80 should be provided. 
The top of the box should be covered with 
a cloth frame, and two light partitions, put 
together in the form of a cross, should be 
provided to divide the chicks into four 
lots and prevent crowding when the tray 
is filled, or to keep them together in one 
or two compartments if only a few are to 
be handled. Fasten the partitions together 
but leave them loose in the box so that 
they can readily be taken out for cleaning 
and disinfecting, which should be done for 
each brood. Do not try to move too many 
chicks at a time if the room is cold, but 
take out a few and then close the machine 
and dispose of these before removing any 
more. 

Record Marking for Chicks 

When the chicks are taken from the 
incubator is the time to mark them, if any 
sort of breeding or hatching record is to be 
kept. One way of doing this is by the use of 
leg bands as shown in Fig. 129. As there BROODER 
is more or less trouble with leg bands, THERMOM- 
however, owing to the necessity for chang- ETER. 
ing them as the chicks grow, the system of 
marking them by means of a band in the wing is re- 
garded as more satisfactory. A leg band is employed 
until the chicks are about a month old and then it is 
transferred to the wing as shown in Fig. 130. 

A simpler way where flock or hatching records only 
are to be kept and not individual numbers, is by the 



78 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




FIG. 127— A BROODER TEMPERATURE REGULATOR 
"While regulators are not as essential on brooders as 
on incubators, they will be found well worth the extra 
cost — particularly during- the first few days when the 
hover temperature should be fairly uniform. The regu- 
lator illustrated above has a wafer thermostat. Courtesy 
of Prairie State Incubator Company. 

familiar toe-punching method. This is illustrated in Fig. 
125. A record is kept of the significance of each com- 
bination of punched webs and chicks so marked can read- 
ily, be identified ever after, as the holes in the web will 
never grow over. A more systematic method of identify- 
ing by toe-marking is described by Prof. F. C. Hare, of 
Clemson College, S. C, as follows: 

"In the system that I am using at Clemson College, 
the toe punches are always known by number, and not by 
inside or outside, left or right, or any location term. Four 
valuations are given to the webs between the six toes 
thus: The outside web of the left foot is 1; the inside 
web of the left foot is 2; the inside web of the right foot 
is 4; and the outside web of the right foot is 8. These 
marks must be memorized, but if you will say them over 
a few times that will readily be accomplished. Just re- 
member that the series is 1, 2, 4, 8, with the 1 at the 
left or PROPER UNIT place. 

"Now, let us see how we will punch that chick from 
pen three so that every time we catch him, 
or any of his brothers or sisters, we will 
know at once that the youngster is a progeny 
of pen three. The outside left web is 1, and 
inside left is 2. Three (3) is made by punch- 
ing both 1 and 2 (both webs on the left foot). 
So that we have this rule: Always add the 
value of the punched webs and the result is 
the number of the chick. For example, 4 is 
one punch, the inside right; 5 is 4 plus 1, or 
inside right and outside left, and so on up 
to IS — 8 and 4 and 2 and 1, or every web 
punched. When you catch any bird, examine 
his feet and add up the value of his punched 
webs. You've got his number at once. I like 
to associate the bird's number with the pen 
from which he was bred, as that saves all the 
annoyance and trouble of looking up his 
number in a note book. 

"We have been using this method here, and 
it is so much more satisfactory than the ordi- 
nary way that I want others to profit by it. 
The students can read the number of a chick 
from his feet without error, and tell to which 
pen he belongs. They have never heard the 
terms "inside left" or "outside right," and are 
not bothered with a complicated system of 
identification that is impossible to keep in 
mind." 



Teaching the Chicks to Use the Hover 

Place the chicks under the hover and keep them 
there for at least several hours before feeding or water- 
ing. A wire guard such as is illustrated in Fig. 123 is 
indispensable at this time, setting it up just far enough 
from the hover so that the chicks can get outside the 
curtain, which should be pinned up here and there so that 
there will be no possible chance for them to lose their 
way. If the hover is square or oblong and open on only 
one or two sides, make suitable wire-covered frames in- 
stead, and set them up in front of the hover, moving them 
back as the chicks learn how to use the additional space. 
After they are once settled under the hover they should 
not be confined to it but should have an opportunity to 
run in and out, thus learning the source and location of 
heat and how to find their way to it. Keep them under 
constant observation at this time and push them back 
under the hover at frequent intervals not only to prevent 
any possibility of their getting chilled, but to make cer- 
tain that they do not form the habit of huddling together 
for warmth outside the hover, which' habit, once formed, 
will be a source of continual trouble during the entire 
brooding period. 

Gradually give the chicks more liberty, moving the 
guard farther ba"ck from the hover, but never leaving 
them for long at a time until certain that they will volun- 
tarily go in when cold or uncomfortable. 

Different broods of chicks vary more or less in the 
promptness with which they become hoverwise. A single 
day may be sufficient in some cases, but usually it takes 
at least two or three days, and sometimes longer. Bear 
in mind that every increase in liberty, such as removing 
the guard, giving the chicks the run of the entire brooder 
or house pen, letting them out into yards, and increasing 
the size or shape of these, is a danger point. Chicks 
readily get confused and lost in unfamiliar surroundings, 
and every such change should be made gradually and the 
chicks kept under observation until certain that they 




FIG. 128— INDOOR BROODER INSULATED WITH PLANER SHAVINGS 
This illustration shows measures taken to save heat in cold- 
weather brooding. The indoor brooder case is placed a few inches from 
the house wall and the space between is packed with planer shavings. 
Courtesy of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OE BROODER CHICKS 



79 



thoroughly know their way back. This trouble is es- 
pecially liable to occur during the first week or two, 
when the operator is impatient to get rid of guards, etc., 
which are somewhat troublesome, but without which 
heavy losses may result. If the chicks have been prop- 
erly trained they will be thoroughly familiar with their 
surroundings by the time they are two weeks old and 
thereafter they may be allowed to go and come at will. 

Correct Brooder Temperature 

The temperature to be maintained under the hover 
will vary with the style of brooder used, the kind and 
position of thermometer, the outside temperature, and the 
age and development of the chicks. For this reason an 
exact schedule of hover temperatures cannot be given, 
though it can be approximated. The conduct of the 
chicks themselves is a fairly accurate indication as to 
whether the heat is right, but is not to be entirely relied 
upon, as it is possible to ac- 
custom young chicks to a 
higher temperature than is 
good for them by continual- 
ly keeping the brooder a lit- 
tle too warm. 

Whatever the theoretically 
correct temperature may be 
at any given time, it is only 
correct in practice when the 
chicks themselves have put 
their O. K. upon it. If they 
are restless and dissatisfied 
the tempers ture must be 
raised sufficiently to make 
them comfortable, whatever 
the increase may be. How- 
ever, any marked variation 
from normal requirements is 
good ground for suspecting 
that something else is wrong. 
Possibly the thermometer is 
inaccurate — that is a matter 
of frequent occurrence with 
the low-priced ones common- 
ly used in brooders. Some- 
times the chicks are weakly, 
due to inferior breeding 

stock or to injuries received during incubation; and some- 
times there is a defect in the brooder itself that needs 
correction. Remember that a somewhat higher tempera- 
ture than normal is always required in cold or windy 
weather. 

Because of the various conditions that may modify 
temperature requirements and because the chicks them- 
selves must be the court of last resort, many operators 
discard the thermometer entirely and depend solely on 
the chicks and the "feel" when the hand is thrust under 
the hover. This method may prove satisfactory for opera- 
tors of experience but it would seem unwise to recom- 
mend it for general adoption, especially during the first 
few weeks of the chicks' lives when there are other things 
besides low temperatures that may cause discomfort and 
restlessness among them and when, without a thermom- 
eter, the inexperienced operator may be completely mis- 
led as to actual conditions under the hover. 

Brooding Temperature for First Four Weeks 

In general, it is wise to start with the temperature 
at 100 when the chicks are all under the hover, reducing 




FIG. 129— CHICK WITH LEG BAND 



it at the rate of about 5 degrees each week until the 
chicks are four weeks old, when the temperature should 
be about 80. These temperatures are to be taken with 
a thermometer so placed that the bulb will be about on a 
level with the chicks' backs and well inside the hover 
curtain but not necessarily in the warmest spot. The 
schedule here given represents a. fair average of tempera- 
ture requirements at all times during the first four weeks, 
but may safely be varied 5 degrees either way as weather 
conditions and the conduct of the chicks dictate. 

Chicks when settled for the night should not be hud- 
dled together in a bunch under the hover — that means 
too little heat; neither should they collect outside the 
hover curtain — a sure indication that it is too warm. In- 
stead, they should all be under the hover but spread out 
loosely with a few heads sticking out around the curtain. 
As the temperature drops during the night the chicks 
will gradually draw back toward the warm center. The 

caretaker must see to it that 
there is plenty of surplus 
heat when the temperature is 
liable to drop low during the 
night. If the hover has a 
regulator, as it should, this 
surplus heat will be allowed 
to escape until it is needed. 
If not, the chicks will have 
to get away from it by keep- 
ing close to the hover cur- 
tain in the evening. In warm 
weather when it sometimes is 
almost impossible to supply 
any heat at all during the 
day without having too much 
■when the chicks gather un- 
der the hover, it is a good 
plan to raise part of the 
hover curtain. It is much 
better to do this than to let 
the lamp go out, in which 
case there will be no reserve 



Numbered leg bands must be provided where each 
chick is to have a separate number. At the Kansas Ex- 
periment Station the newly hatched chicks are banded 
on the leg with pigeon bands. When they are three or 
four weeks old the bands are transferred to the wing. 
See Fig. 130. 



heat at all in case of a sud- 
den change. 

After the chicks are large 
enough to run out more or 
less during the day, it still is 
well to keep up a good temperature under the hover so 
that any that get chilled can warm up quickly. In brood- 
ers that have square or oblong hovers and in which one 
side or end is noticeably warmer than the rest of the 
hover space, the temperature must always be high enough 
so that the chicks will keep away from the warm end. 
If it gets cold enough so that they crowd to the warm 
spot there is likely to be trouble. 

From the time the chicks are hatched until they no 
longer need artificial heat, they must be protected against 
getting chilled. It is expensive and unnecessary to have 
a great excess of heat, but it is always better to err on 
the side of too much rather than too little. The chicks 
can get away from too much heat, but they have no re- 
course when there is too little. Great losses occur an- 
nually on account of brooders being operated at too low 
temperatures, either through carelessness or on account 
of inadequate heating systems. Many operators persist 
year after year in using brooders that are known to be 
unequal to the demands that will be placed upon them — 
that cannot supply the heat needed or cannot be relied 
on to keep it uniform over night, though they well know 



80 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



that a single chilling is certain to cause serious trouble 
and may result in the loss of the entire flock. 

How Many Chicks to the Brooder 

One of the most common sources of disease and loss 
among brooder chicks is overcrowding in the brooder or 
house pen, and it is important that the actual capacity of 
the brooder, hover, or pen be clearly understood. There 
are no definite standards for estimating brooder capacity, 
but as the average egg occupies approximately 3.5 square 
inches in the incubator it is clear that the chicks should 
each have at least 4 square inches of floor space under 
the hover. This means that to accommodate 100 newly 
hatched chicks the hover must be not less than 20 inches 
square, or about 23 inches in diameter if round. By the 
time the chicks are two or three weeks old they will be 
badly crowded if allowed no more space than this, and 
the number should be reduced to 65, or 75 at the most. 
Since the claims of various manufacturers as to the 
capacity of their brooders 
are based on different stand- 
ards, it will prevent confu- 
sion and disappointment if 
the following general rule is 
applied to all: Learn the 
number of square inches en- 
closed under the hover and 
divide this by 4 to get the 
capacity in newly hatched 
chicks; divide by 6 to learn 
the number of chicks that 
can be accommodated when 
3 weeks old; and by 8 to get 
the capacity in chicks 5 
weeks old. If there are any 
lamp boxes or heat drums 
■occupying floor space under 
the hovers, this must be de- 
ducted before making the 
division. If the weather is 
quite warm so that it does 
not matter whether the 
chicks can all get under the 
hover or not, these limits 
may be somewhat exceeded. 
On the other hand, the reg- 
ular estimated capacity 
should always be discounted 
in cold weather. 

Inasmuch as there are few instances where it is prac- 
ticable to divide or reapportion broods at the end of the 
third week when additional room is imperative if the 
brooders have been filled to capacity at first, the most 
practical plan is to base all estimates on the number of 
three-week-old chicks the brooder can accommodate, and 
limit the original flocks to about that number. Where the 
maximum capacity of the brooder is required at the 
start, the chicks usually are left in it indefinitely, with the 
result that they are badly overcrowded as they reach 
larger size. 

Do not guess at the dimensions of the hover or in 
regard to the proper number of chicks to be brooded in 
it. Learn just what its capacity is, and never exceed it. 
If there are more chicks than there is brooder capacity 
for, and it is impossible to provide additional space in 
any other way, at least make some fireless brooders and 
put the surplus in these. It is useless to hatch out good 
chicks simply to kill them off in overcrowded brooders 




FIG. 130 — CHICK WITH WING BAND 

Many persons who keep a pedigreed record of their 
chicks prefer to remove the leg band after the chick 
is a few weeks old and transfer it to the -wing:. A little 
slit is made in the web, using a sharp penknife, and the 
band is slipped through and bent into place. It remains 
here without further attention during the life of the 
chick. Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 



especial attention to this 



where they do not have sufficient liberty of movement, 
are apt to get overheated when the brooder is too warm, 
or where they cannot all get under the hover when it is 
cold. Even though no direct losses should result, there 
will be a general lack of thrift, and the chicks will be 
weakened and made increasingly liable to ailments which 
they probably would have entirely escaped if they had 
had a fair chance in the brooder. 

The amount of houseroom that should be provided 
for chicks will depend to some extent upon the climate. 
Comparatively little room outside the hover will be suf- 
ficient for the first week, after which it should be in- 
creased as rapidly as is found to be safe. Where the 
chicks must be confined indoors most of the time it is 
usual to provide a pen about 4x10 feet for the use of a 
flock of 100 after they are about three weeks old — an 
average of about 2.6 chicks to each square foot of floor 
space. Naturally, if the chicks can be outdoors most of 
the time during the day less floor space will be needed. 

Much less space than this 
usually is allowed to colony- 
hover chicks, a room 10x10 
or 12x12 feet being consid- 
ered sufficient for a flock of 
300 to 500 chicks. The lat- 
ter number however, will be 
badly crowded in even a 
12xl2-foot room, after the 
chicks are a few weeks old, 
unless the weather is so 
mild that they can be out- 
doors most of the time. A 
portable colony house 8x8 
feet is recommended by the 
Poultry Department of Cor- 
nell University, for a flock 
of 250 newly hatched chicks, 
which allows one square foot 
to four chicks. 

Providing Ventilation 

Ventilation, so far as the 
hover space itself is con- 
cerned, generally is taken 
care of by the heating sys- 
tem which in most brooders 
is designed to furnish a sup- 
ply of fresh, warmed air un- 
der the hover, making any 
point unnecessary except in 
warm weather when little heat is supplied and the move- 
ment of the air is slow and uncertain. If the hover is 
one of the indoor type the lamp fumes must either be 
piped out of the house or special ventilation provided to 
get rid of them. This is not necessary in a large room 
which can be freely ventilated, but in small or tightly 
closed houses, also where a number of hovers are being 
operated in one room, it will pay to provide a direct out- 
let for the fumes. After the chicks are far enough along 
so that they do not require artificial heat, ventilation be- 
comes more important. 

As a rule, it is desirable to leave the chicks under 
the hover for some time after heat is no longer required, 
opening up the curtain sufficiently to provide some cir- 
culation of air. 

Just how long the chicks should have heat will de- 
pend on season and breed, also on the condition of par- 
ticular broods. In quite warm weather the chicks may 






CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROODER CHICKS 



81 



be able to supply sufficient bodily heat without using the 
lamp at all. Usually they need heat for three to four 
weeks in mild weather, and for as long as 7 or 8 weeks 
in the case of extra-early broods. The conduct of the 
chicks themselves should be the guide in deciding this. 
As long as they require heat in order to be comfortable 
it should be supplied, no matter how long that may be. 
Great harm will be done by cutting off the heat too soon. 
This practice is of common occurrence where not enough 
brooding equipment is provided, making it necessary to 
take the brooders for new flocks before the older chicks 
are sufficiently developed to get along without them. 
There is no economy whatever in doing this. It is 
always better to have a little more brooder equipment 
than is needed, rather than less. The man who has one 
or two hovers that he never has to unpack will raise more 
chicks and will raise them more successfully than the 
one who must continually push his chicks along into cold 
brooders before they are ready for them. 

In the changeable weather of early spring it is wise 
to leave the hovers in position for some time after the 
lamp is permitted to go out, since a sudden 
cold snap may necessitate firing up again. 
However, as soon as it is reasonably certain 
that no more heat will be required, it is ad- 
visable to substitute cheap, homemade cold 
brooders or hovers. These will answer the 
purpose as well as the manufactured ones and 
will add many years of usefulness to the lat- 
ter. Allowing chicks to continue using the 
regular hovers after they no longer need 
artificial heat results in rapid deterioration 
of equipment. 

The Use of Cold Brooders 

A cold brooder that may be made quite 
cheaply, and is easily substituted for heated 
hovers, is shown in Figs. 133 and 134. This 
cold hover originated at the Poultry Depart- 
ment of Wisconsin Experiment Station, and 
has been in successful use there for some 
years. An open, four-sided wooden frame on 
an elevated floor is provided for the circu- 
lar lamp-heated hovers that are used as long as the chicks 
need artificial heat. Afterwards the "cold frame" is sub- 
stituted for the hover, the method of doing this being 
thus described in Wisconsin Bulletin 261: 

"On a mild night remove the hover from the brooder 
box and insert a 'cold frame.' A cold frame is made 
twenty-seven inches square with eight-inch plain boards 
on three sides, the fourth side being open, except for a 
slitted curtain of soft, warm cloth of the same color, if 
possible, as the curtain around the hover. The top of the 
cold frame is made of strips an inch thick and three 
inches wide, nailed together at the ends to form a frame 
which fits inside of the side pieces and rests on blocks 
nailed in each corner. This frame is covered with single- 
faced eiderdown or other warm cloth tacked loosely so 
that it sags in the center and rests on the chicks' backs 
when they go into the frame to sleep at night or warm 
up during the day. The open side is placed against the 
south side of the hover box through which the chicks 
enter. The chicks are accustomed to go through this 
opening in search of warmth and usually take to the 
new home without trouble. If they do not go in, put 
them in carefully. The corners of the frame must be 
well banked with litter (planer shavings) so that center 
of frame is the lowest, with a gradual rise to each corner, 



"The cold frame boxes are about six inches smaller 
than the brooder box. This space is banked full with lit- 
ter so that chicks cannot fly on top of the brooder box 
and get into this narrow space. This packing of litter 
helps to make the cold frame warmer. On cold nights if 
the chicks seem inclined to huddle together, cover the 
top with two or three burlap sacks for additional protec- 
tion. As the chicks get older "and no longer need the 
protection of the cold frame, they begin to stay outside 
or just inside near the opening. Do not disturb them 
and in a few more nights practically all will be inclined 
to stay outside. Then the cold frame can be removed, 
disinfected, and dried for the next lot. While it is in 
use the cloth top should be carefully sunned or dried 
each day and the litter should be frequently changed if 
best results are to be secured." 

In warmer weather it is sufficient to replace the 
round heated hovers with wooden ones a few inches 
greater in diameter, enclosed in the usual way with 
slashed hover curtains and supported on legs so that 
the hover space will be about 8 inches high. It is a sim- 




FIG. 131 — OUTSIDE BROODER WITH ENCLOSED RUN 
Outdoor brooders should be provided with some sort of enclosed 
run to which newly hatched chicks can be confined. If the covered run 
shown in Fig. 115 is considered too expensive, at least have one like 
this. It will pay for itself in a short time. 



pie matter to take out the regular hovers and set these 
cheap, simple substitutes in their places, and if this is 
done in mild weather the chicks will not notice the 
change. Do not make the mistake of doing this right at 
the beginning of a cold spell however, nor should the 
preparation of these hovers be postponed until the need 
for them is pressing. The brooder season on the poultry 
farm is the busiest of all the year and there is never 
time enough for doing the things that need to be done 
then. 

Chicks do not readily take to changes, and it will 
simplify this part of the work greatly if the lamp-heated 
and cold hovers do not differ greatly in appearance. By 
all means avoid moving the chicks to new quarters and 
changing the hover at the same time. The almost in- 
evitable result is to have them crowd together in some 
corner, smothering and sweating and laying the founda- 
tion for sore eyes, colds, diarrhea, and other ailments. 

Transferring chicks from brooders or brooder houses 
to colony houses is always a danger period. Even though 
they may be accustomed to cold brooders or none at all, 
when they are moved to strange quarters they are apt 
to crowd in some corner, and serious injury may occur. 
There should always be some means provided for round- 
ing out the corners of the house such as by the use of 



82 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



boards, a strip of prepared roofing, a piece of netting, 
etc. These can be lightly tacked or hooked in place and 
removed when no longer needed. 

Cleanliness and Disinfection 

Cleanliness, as applied to brooders, means that they 
shall be dry and free from unpleasant odors, and that 
the litter shall be removed frequently enough to prevent 
an undue accumulation of droppings. This does not nec- 
essarily mean that there is to be no accumulation at all, 
but there must be no dampness or foul smell. 

Whether the floor under the hover should be cleaned 
every day will depend on the number of chicks and the 
thickness of the litter, also on the kind of litter used. 
The ideal way perhaps, is to clean out under the hover 
once a day, but in practical poultry keeping much time 



all healthy. However, the brooder should at least be dis- 
infected for each new brood. For this purpose formalde- 
hyde or a good coal-tar disinfectant can be used, apply- 
ing it with a spray pump or, in case of the hover floor, 
with a scrub broom or brush. Always have the brooder 
thoroughly dry before using for the next brood of chicks 
and if it is to be disinfected during occupancy, let the 
work be done on a warm, sunny day, and have the 
brooder thoroughly dry before turning the chicks back in. 
If they are too young to stay out for the time necessary 
to do this, transfer them to another brooder or put them 
in clean fireless brooders or the chick trays used in 
transferring them from the incubator. 

These steps will be about all that will be required 
under ordinary conditions but it will be found a wise 
precaution to keep some disinfecting solution on hand at 
all times. Use it in washing the 
water founts and feeding vessels at 
frequent intervals, especially if milk 
or soft feeds are supplied. 

Under the- head of cleanliness 
comes the injunction to see to it that 
the litter is kept dry and reasonably 
free from droppings. Extremely dusty 
litter also is highly objectionable and 
it must be renewed frequently 
enough to prevent its becoming so. 
If feed, especially moist mash, is 
scratched into the litter it should 
promptly be removed and replaced 
with new. Also, when the water 
fount is left standing in one place, 
the litter frequently becomes water- 
soaked and in this condition is a 
menace to the health of the flock. 
Always remove litter that gets wet 
from any cause, and shift the location 
of the fount frequently, unless an 
elevated platform is provided for it 
and the feed hoppers, which is by 
far the better plan. 

The runs or yards also should re- 
ceive regular attention. When out- 
door coops or brooders are used they 
FIG. 132— GET THE CHICKS OUTDOORS AS SOON AS POSSIBLE must be moved frequently to new 

Chicks that can get down on the ground in direct sunlight will do much ___„_j „„j;n„,.„„ „<>„<.„„ «-V,~ „ 

better than when shut indoors. Keep them confined close to the door until they ground, ana 11 ior any reason tne cov- 
can readily find their way back and forth. ere< i runs or yar d s are allowed to 

stand in one place until the ground 
becomes bare it should be well covered with a coat of 
air-slacked lime. As a rule, the yards should not be per- 
mitted to get into this condition however, but should 
be moved frequently enough to avoid it. If bare yards 
must be used they should be kept clean either by scrap- 
ing and sweeping them every week or so, or by spading. 
The latter method will aerate the soil and the chicks will 
derive additional advantage from having loose earth to 
scratch in. If the soil is sandy or the yard is filled in 
as described in Chapter XII, probably nothing will be 
necessary aside from renewing the surface material every 
year, but clay soils require extreme cleanliness to keep 
them sanitary and free from disease germs. 

Litter for the Brooder 

Short-cut alfalfa hay is by far the best material gen- 
eially available for litter. If it cannot be secured or if 
the price is too high to make its use practical, there are 
other materials that can be employed. Mow chaff or 
"shattenngs" are good if free from mold, but if from 




and labor may be saved by using plenty of litter and 
cleaning less frequently. A deep bed of litter with a 
liberal percentage of dry, odorless droppings mixed in 
it may actually be more sanitary — may be "cleaner" — 
than a floor laboriously cleaned every day, but so spar- 
ingly littered that the brooder is always smelly and the 
chicks' feet continually soiled with fresh droppings. 
Whatever may be done elsewhere it will pay to use litter 
freely in and about brooders and hovers. Keeping chicks 
on practically bare floors cannot be excused on the ground 
of economy or any other. The floor of the house pen or 
brooder need only be cleaned infrequently if litter is 
freely used. For example, where deep litter feeding is 
adopted (see Chapter XI) it is not necessary to remove 
the litter for weeks at a time. However, if it gets notice- 
ably damp from any cause it must be removed at once. 
The need for disinfection depends somewhat on con- 
ditions. If there is any reason to suspect that there is 
disease in the flock, more frequent disinfection will be 
called for than would be the case where the chicks are 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROODER CHICKS 



83 




FIG. 133— A HEAT SAVING COLD BROODER 
The brooder here illustrated serves as an enclosure for lamp- 
heated hovers until artificial heat is no longer required, after which 
the hover is removed and the brooder arranged to operate as a cold 
brooder. Courtesy of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 



clover hay, examine them carefully for this. Dusty mow 
chaff is a frequent source of an epidemic disease affect- 
ing brooder chicks. Clover hay or shredded corn fodder 
or stover run through a feed cutter and reduced to short 
lengths will answer fairly well, also dried lawn clippings 
if free from mold. After chicks are two or three weeks 
old, coarse sawdust or planer shavings may be used, but 
are not recommended for newly hatched chicks. Coarse 
bran often is recommended for litter for young chicks, 
but shortcut alfalfa is much better and usually is cheaper. 

In the absence of anything else, coarse, clean sand 
may be used. It will keep the droppings from sticking 
to the floor and will absorb moisture, but cannot be re- 
garded as litter or even as a substitute for it. The prac- 
tice of placing paper on the floor of brooders, 
especially under hovers, is objectionable un- 
less well-covered with litter. A bare paper 
surface is too smooth, does not afford a foot- 
hold for the chicks, and may cause cripples. 



Getting the Chicks Outdoors 

The age at which chicks should be given 
access to outdoor yards depends upon the 
season and the method of brooding. Many 
chick growers insist on the chicks being out 
on the ground by the time they are a week 
old, letting them out for at least a few min- 
utes daily even though it may be quite cold. 
Coddling the chicks will make them weakly 
and hard to raise, it is true, but it is doubt- 
ful whether there is any advantage in expos- 
ing them to severe cold at an extremely early 
age. The general practice is to keep chicks 
indoors until they are at least two or three 
weeks old in cold weather, provided there is 
plenty of room for them. With outdoor 
brooders, where the floor space is necessarily 
quite limited, the chicks must get out about 
as soon as they become hoverwise. In per- 
manent brooder houses, also in colony houses 
of sufficient size, the chicks will suffer no in- 



jury if kept indoors for two or three weeks, 
if properly cared for. If on hard floors how- 
ever, with little or no litter to scratch in, a 
number of difficulties will quickly develop, 
such as toe picking, leg weakness, etc., and in 
addition there will be a general lack of 
thrift which, while less noticeable, may cause 
even more serious lo"ss in the long run. 

No matter how comfortably the chicks 
may be housed and brooded, there seldom is 
any condition that will make it desirable to 
keep them indoors longer than three weeks, 
and to keep them in for even that time with- 
out injury necessitates ample floor space, 
plenty of litter, and careful feeding. In mild 
weather chicks may be out much sooner — 
usually within 10 days. Let them out for 
only a short time at first and in the warmest 
part of the day, increasing the length of the 
period as conditions and the conduct of the 
chicks suggest. If the yards or runs are cov- 
ered with tall grass, weeds, or growing crops, 
do not let the chicks out until the dew has 
dried off. 

In introducing the chicks to their outdoor 
run, they should be confined close to the 
brooder or house door at first. A convenient 
way of doing this is to use a strip of one-inch mesh net- 
ting with wire supports, or panels of netting, both of 
which are illustrated and described in Chapter XII. If 
the door of the brooder or house is above the ground 
level, take pains to see that the approach to it is made 
flush with the doorstep or sill, and is not too steep, so 
that the chicks will have no trouble in getting into the 
house. 

After they have become thoroughly familiar with 
their small yard, its size can safely be increased to in- 
clude whatever space is available. By the time the chicks 
are four weeks old they should be spending most of their 
time outdoors, and the more room they have thereafter 
the better it will be for them. When the chicks are fair- 




FIG. 134— COLD BROODER READY FOR USE 
This is the brooder shown in Fig. 133, made readv for use with the 
hover in place. This brooder is built to retain as much as possible of 
the bodily heat of the chicks, but the operator should not depend too 
much upon this. Leave the lamp-heated hovers in place as long aa 
there is need for them. Courtesy of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 



$4 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



ly well feathered out, they may be given free range if 
available. Chicks can be successfully grown to adult 
size in quite limited space if they receive the needed 
extra care and attention, but when they can have free 
range, that is by all odds the cheapest and best way in 
which to raise them. 

Teaching Chicks to Use Perches 

There is no advantage in, and no necessity for hav- 
ing the chicks perch at too early an age. As long as 
they are satisfied under the cold hover or on the floor 
it is wise to let well enough alone, at least until they 
are eight to ten weeks old or thereabouts, after which 
no doubt, they will be better off on perches. There sel- 
dom is any trouble in getting Leghorn chicks and those 
of similar breeds to use perches, most of them doing so 
before it is really desirable, but chicks of the larger 
breeds often are extremely slow in learning. It is not 




FIG. 135— CHICKS BROODED IN COLONY HOUSE 
As soon as settled weather arrives chicks can be brooded from the start in 
portable colony houses like the above. For suggestions in regard to making 
portable fence panels such as are shown herewith, see Chapter XII. Photo from 
United States Department of Agriculture. 



difficult to teach them however, when they are old 
enough, if they are handled properly. 

A week or two before the cold hover is to be taken 
away, a perching board should be put in place in the house 
near the hover. This board should not be over a foot 
above the floor and should be eight to ten inches wide. 
It should be placed back against the wall, moving the 
hover forward, if necessary, so that it will not be under 
the board. The chicks will take to the perching board 
and will enjoy using it in the daytime even though they 
may abandon it for the hover in the evening. As they 
grow familiar with it however, some will remain on it 
at night, the number gradually increasing until all or 
nearly all will voluntarily perch there. Until they do 
this the cold hover should be left in place. After the 
chicks have become accustomed to the board, a perch 
may be installed, placing it a little above the board and 
in front of it, so the chicks on the board will not be 
soiled by the droppings from those on the perch, but 
so that they will all be close together, the board serving 



as a sort of step to the perch. The chicks will not be 
long in passing over from the one to the other, and when 
they do so the board may be removed, and the perch 
put back and raised to a height of 18 inches to 2 feet. 
The essential point in this as in other advance steps 
that the chicks are required to take all along the line 
from the incubator to adult size, is to make no abrupt 
changes. Let them pass gradually from one thing to the 
next, giving them time to become accustomed to each 
successive step. 

Care of Brooding Equipment When Not in Use 

The better makes of brooders and hovers contain so 
good materials and are so well made that they are to be 
regarded as permanent assets. If they are properly cared 
for when not in use, they will last for many years. As 
a rule, it is not legitimate use but neglect, rust, and de- 
cay that cause these articles to wear out. Just as soon 
as they have served their purpose for 
the season, they should be removed 
from the houses where they have 
been in use, or brought in from out- 
doors in the case of brooders, and 
thoroughly cleaned, disinfected, and 
stored in a dry place where they will 
be safe from rats. Wooden surfaces 
on which the paint is getting dull, 
should be repainted, and if the 
brooder has been standing on the 
ground it should be turned up so that 
the bottom will dry out thoroughly, 
after which it also should have a good 
coat of paint. Metal surfaces that are 
liable to rust, should be oiled or 
painted, and hover curtains that are 
badly soiled should be washed and 
then put back in place. Lamp bowls 
should be emptied, cleaned, and 
dried. Any repairs that may be 
needed should also be attended to at 
this time, and loose articles of equip- 
ment such as thermometers, regu- 
lator parts, etc., should be collected 
and carefully stored in a convenient 
place. These attentions and repairs 
take only a little time, but they 
will more than double the effective life of the appliances. 



The Growing Stock 

After the chicks no longer need brooders, either 
heated or otherwise, their treatment will be determined 
mainly by the future use to be made of them. Surplus 
stock to be marketed as squab broilers will be ready for 
special fattening almost as soon as they leave the brooder, 
or very shortly thereafter. If to be sold as regular broil- 
ers or frys, they should have a few weeks on range and 
then be penned or put in fattening crates for special feed- 
ing. If intended for next season's breeding pens, they 
will receive the general care and management outlined 
in Chapter II, Pullets intended for winter layers should, 
as a rule, be separated from the cockerels, placed in col- 
ony houses, and given all the liberty possible. The vari- 
ous details of care and feeding beyond brooding age do 
not properly come within the scope of this book, but will 
be found quite fully treated in "The Chick Book"— see 
page 112. 



CHAPTER XI 



Feeding the Brooder Chicks 



When to Begin Feeding Newly Hatched Chicks and the Special Feeds That Should Be Provided— Rations That Secura 

Rapid Growth— Practical Methods of Saving Labor — How to Economize in Feed Cost— The Advantages of 

Hopper Feeding, and Its Limitations — Formulas for Home-Mixed Rations — 

How to Feed After the Chicks Are Out on Range. 



^y^ HILE the embryo has drawn upon the yolk for 
riy food practically throughout the developing period, 
55gS5 a large portion of it still is unabsorbed, and it 
fiSsfisi forms approximately one-sixth of the entire 
weight of the chick when hatched. This left-over yolk 
is drawn into the abdomen just before hatching. It is 
connected with the intestine about midway between the 
gizzard and the anus, by means of a "stalk" through 
which it is rapidly assimilated. Only a trace of it should 
be left on the sixth day. 

The chick's digestive organs are not fully developed 
at hatching time and the 
overzealous caretaker who 
promptly places food before 
them is inviting trouble of 
the most serious kind. Care- 
ful investigations have shown 
that the chick's stomach is 
not fully developed until the 
second day after hatching, 
while the pancreatic fer- 
ments are not normally de- 
veloped until the seventh 
day. Because of this fact, 
when newly hatched chicks 
are fed too soon or too 
heavily, the food cannot be 
digested, but remains undi- 
gested in the crop, gizzard 
or intestines, where it fer- 
ments and causes one of the 
commonest forms of so- 
called "white diarrhea." 

Too early feeding also in- 
terferes with the prompt ab- 
sorption of the yolk which 
is believed to result in un- 
favorable changes in its 

composition that further complicate the situation and in- 
crease the difficulty of successfully raising the chicks. It 
is not necessary nor desirable that the yolk should be en- 
tirely absorbed before feeding begins, but it clearly 
should form the chick's sole means of subsistence for the 
first two days at least. After that, in gradually decreas- 
ing proportions, it serves to reinforce the food obtained 
from outside sources and appears to have some influence 
in regulating the chick's bowels at this critical time, start- 
ing them to function in the natural way. 

Normally developed chicks usually demand some food 
by the end of the second day, and while they apparently 
are not seriously inconvenienced by going without for a 
day or two longer, the general practice is to begin feed- 
ing them lightly at this time. Chicks will live for many 
days without any supplied food. The United States Post 
Office Department accepts parcel post shipments of day- 
old chicks that can be delivered within seventy-two hours, 
or three days, and there are numerous reports of ship- 
ments that have been on the road for five days without 
any apparent injury. 




FIG. 136— FEED THE CHICKS OUTSIDE THE 
BROODER 
As soon as the chicks can find their way back to the 
hover readily, all feeding and watering should be out- 
side the brooder. Doing this saves work and litter. 



When to Begin Feeding 

In determining when the first feed should be given, 
the beginner sometimes is confused by irregular hatch- 
ing which may extend over an entire day or longer, leav- 
ing him uncertain as to just when the two-day period 
begins or ends. In a general way, it may be said that 
the hatch is assumed to have begun when the chicks 
commence to come out freely — not when the first few 
make their appearance, which may be several hours in 
advance of the general movement. 

While the two-day period is a convenient approxi- 
mate guide in determining 
when to begin feeding, the 
conduct of the chicks should 
also be considered. If they 
do not appear particularly 
hungry after the two days 
are up it will be wise to de- 
lay feeding a little longer. 
If on the other hand they 
clearly are ready for food it 
is safe to supply it a little in 
advance of the regular time. 
However, when the chicks 
become dissatisfied and noisy 
on the second day the cause 
is apt to be thirst rather than 
hunger. If they have been 
dried down a little too much 
in the incubator, or are kept 
close under the hover, as 
usually is necessary for the 
first day or two while they 
are learning where to go for 
warmth, they will need water 
before food, and it is well to 
supply it regularly after the 
first day, using for the pur- 
pose small founts similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 138. 
Place these where the chicks can get at them readily, 
and provide enough of them so that the thirsty ones 
will have room to drink without crowding, and there will 
be no danger of their getting wet. If the chicks become 
very thirsty however, and must all drink from a single 
fount they are apt to pile up about it, dripping and splash- 
ing the water over each other until they are thoroughly 
soaked and chilled — thus laying the foundation for intes- 
tinal disorders and an epidemic of diarrhea. 

In order to avoid this danger, also to make it easy 
for the chicks to find the water and learn to drink, it is 
practical to use ordinary pie pans for water dishes for the 
first two or three days, putting just a little water in 
each. In this way the chicks can get at the water read- 
ily, and there need be no crowding. If the water is 
lukewarm, as it should be, getting into it with their feet 
will do them no harm, and they will keep drier than 
when ordinary founts are used. Some prefer to fill the 
pans with coarse gravel so that the chicks can get at 
the water without standing in it. In either case the pans 

85 



86 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



must be emptied and refilled often enough to keep the 
;vater ciean. After the chicks have learned to drink, 
founts are entirely satisfactory and more convenient. 

As a rule there will be no difficulty in teaching chicks 
i:o drink. The brightest ones will learn quickly when the 
opportunity is afforded, and the rest will promptly imi- 




FIG. 137— FEEDING TRAY FOR SOFT FEED 
This tray is imade from a smooth board of suitable 
size, with strips of lath around the edge. These should 
extend about half an inch above the board. Soft feed 
should never be thrown upon the floor or into the 
litter. 



tate them. There is no danger of their drinking more 
water than is good for them if it is regularly provided 
after the first day and they are never allowed to get ex- 
tremely thirsty. The water vessels should be placed di- 
rectly upon the brooder floor at first, close to the hover, 
but after the chicks have become hoverwise it is advis- 
able to put them on boards or slightly raised platforms 
so that litter will not be scratched into them. Drinking 
vessels filled with litter and dirt are a constant menace 
to the health of the flock. 

Founts manufactured for this special purpose are best 
and cheapest for ordinary use but, in an emergency, a 
homemade fount can readily be extemporized from a one- 
quart vegetable can and a small dish or pan (see Fig. 
139.) Punch one or two holes in the can so that they 
will be a little below the top of the dish when in use; 
fill can with water, place dish over it and invert. If the 
hole is properly located the water will stand a little 
below the top of dish and will be renewed from the can 
as the chicks drink it. The dish should be only one to 
one and one-half inches larger in diameter than the can, 
for best results. 

It is important for the chicks to have some grit from 
the start, and many experienced chick raisers place this 

before them a few hours in 
advance of the first feed. In 
order to be certain that they 
all get their share of this 
highly important part of the. 
ration it should regularly be 
mixed with each soft feed 
until certain that the chicks 
will voluntarily help them- 
selves to it from the hopper. 
Use a good grade of com- 
mercial chick grit if obtain- 
able. In the absence of this, 
supply clean, sharp sand. 

Importance of Careful 
Feeding 

The exact character of the 

ration that is fed to chicks is 

of less importance than the 

way in which it is fed — but still highly important. Strong, 

vigorous chicks will do well on rations that are far from 

being correct, provided they are carefully fed; but they 




FIG. 13s— DRINKING 
FOUNT 

There is no better way 
of .supplying driDking 
water for chicks than by 
the use of a two-piece 
fount similar to this one. 



will only make their best growth and development when 
their rations are properly adapted to their needs. If 
some chick raisers realize a measure of success with dis- 
tinctly inferior rations, that does not affect the fact that 
the more suitable the feed provided, the easier it is to 
raise the chicks, and the better they will develop. No 
ration however, can be made up that will relieve the 
feeder of the necessity for exercising care and judgment 
in supplying it. Many a watchful, earnest farmer's wife 
with painstaking skill, and with the added advantage of 
farm conditions generally, is able to raise a larger per- 
centage of chicks on cornmeal dough (which is about 
the worst feed to give them) than other persons who use 
the best of "balanced rations," but who feed them care- 
lessly. 

It is not meant by the foregoing to imply that there 
is any one method of feeding, or any one ration, that is 
to be recommended above all others. On the contrary, 
the well-informed chick raiser has a rather wide range 
of choice in both respects, being able readily to adapt 
the ration to available supplies and to modify methods 
of feeding to suit personal convenience. The beginner 
however, should not presume too much upon this fact. 
Lacking in the exact knowledge required to make such 
adjustments successfully, and quite apt to underestimate 
the importance of 
seemingly minor de- 
< ails, he almost in- 
variably finds that 
he is more success- 
ful when he adopts 
a definite ration and 
method of feeding, 
each of proved value 
and then adheres 
strictly to them. 
Other methods may 
seem simpler or 
less laborious; other 
rations may be 
cheaper or more 
easily provided; but 

without personal knowledge and skill, changes are almost 
invariably unsatisfactory and often disastrous. It is for 
this reason that in the latter part of this chapter some 
definite methods of chick feeding are given in detail. 
Unless there is a good reason for doing otherwise, the 
beginner should adopt one of these and follow it ex- 
actly. It will be time enough to simplify or cheapen it, 
when there is a substantial foundation of experience up- 
on which to base the changes. 

Nursery Feeds 

During the first few days the food should be quite 
limited in quantity and of an easily digested nature. 
Cooked feeds are considered extra desirable and many 
experienced feeders depend almost exclusively upon 
bread crumbs at this time, moistening these with milk 
if obtainable, otherwise with water. Some add to the 
bread crumbs a limited amount of hard-boiled egg, using 
for this purpose infertile eggs tested out of the incu- 
bator. These are boiled for half an hour and then crushed 
or run through a food chopper, shells and all, and mixed 
with bread crumbs in the proportion of about six parts 
of the latter to one of the former. In view of the fact 
that chicks frequently have difficulty in assimilating the 
original unabsorbed yolk, the advisability of adding hard- 
boiled eggs to the nursery food appears questionable. 




FIG. 139— A HOMEMADE DRINK- 
ING FOUNT 
A one-quart can inverted over a 
saucer makes a good fount for 
emergency use, but the regular 
manufactured ones are more sub- 
stantial, less easily upset, and the 
chicks are not so apt to get wet. 



I 



FEEDING THE BROODKR CHICKS 



87 



After the chicks are a week old there will be no objec- 
tion to using them, but for the first few days the need 
for animal feed can be much better supplied in the form 
of skim milk, either sweet or sour, or a very limited 
amount of finely cut fresh meat. 

In place of bread crumbs many use commercial "chick 
starters," or prepared nursery foods, several of which are 
excellent for the purpose and much more convenient than 
bread crumbs. Johnnycake is another nursery food in 
common use. In Farmers' Bulletin 624, of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, directions for making 
johnnycake are given as follows: "To one dozen infertile 
eggs or one pound of sifted beef scrap add ten pounds 
of cornmeal and one tablespoonful of baking soda, and 
mix with enough milk to make a pasty mash." This mix- 
ture can be baked on a griddle or skillet, or in the oven, 
as convenient. Whatever feeds are used, no pains should 
be spared to insure their being thoroughly wholesome 
and untainted. Nothing that has heated or that is moldy 
or sour should be fed under any condition. It does not 
seem to matter whether the milk given to chicks is sweet 
or sour. 

It is not possible to give exact directions in regard 
to the amount of feed to supply during the first few days, 
but the quantity should be limited. The feeder must learn 
to be governed by the condition and conduct of his 
chicks, following the general rule to "feed often, but keep 
them hungry." The usual plan is to let them have all 
the moist mash they will eat in three to five minutes, 
after which the surplus is promptly removed. Three 
feeds will be sufficient the first day, but thereafter it is 
advisable to feed four or five times, at regular intervals. 

Great harm is done i>y leaving soft feed before the 
chicks so that, after eating what they need and running 
back under the hover to warm up, they can come out 
later and stuff themselves with what they do NOT need. 
If the chicks are slow about learning, it may be advis- 
able to give them a little more time for the first feed 
or two, to be certain that all have had a chance, but do 
not be overanxious about this. Some chicks will be near- 
ly a day younger than others and these will be better 
off if they do not eat at all. After the first two days 
however, the rule should be "every chick out at feeding 
time," whether they eat much or little. 

Probably the best way to give soft feed is to pro- 
vide a sufficient number of wooden trays, such as the 
one shown in Fig. 137. This consists simply of a smooth 
half-inch board (six inches in width by twelve inches in 
length is a practical and convenient size for a small 
flock) with a strip around the edge about the width of 
an ordinary plastering lath, to prevent the contents from 
being scratched out. Use nothing but smooth, surfaced 
lumber in making them, and provide enough so that all 
the chicks can get to the feed at the same time, without 
crowding. Keep these trays clean and free from taint 
by daily scalding or sunning. 

For reasons already given the chicks' food, during 
the first few days of their lives, should be chosen with 
care, but thereafter their feeding offers no peculiar prob- 
lems. Chicks should be regarded simply as fowls — quite 
small, it is true, but fowls just the same. So far as feed- 
ing is concerned, their appetites and needs differ from 
those of adult fowls only as modified by their smaller 
size. The same grains that are good for adult fowls are 
good for chicks, and they may be fed in about the same 
proportions. If some feeds are provided for the chicks 
that ordinarly are not given to adults, that usually is be- 
cause they are too expensive to be fed to the latter, but 



are required in so small quantities for chicks that the 
slight additional cost is unimportant compared with the 
desirability of giving them the best possible start. 

Whalever the nursery feed may be, the general prac- 
tice is to begin the use of a mixture of finely cracked 
grains, generally called chick feed, about the third to 
the sixth day of feeding, also adding a limited amount 
of some good mash mixture to the nursery feed. Grad- 
ually increase the proportions of both chick feed and 
mash so that by the beginning of the second week, or 
shortly thereafter, the nursery feed can be entirely 
omitted, and the chicks placed on the ration which they 
are to receive regularly for the next three or four weeks. 

What to Feed Up to the Fourth Week 

Just what this ration shall be will depend a good 
deal upon available supplies, and the personal prefer- 
ences of the feeder. The simplest and easiest way is to 
use the ready-mixed commercial chick feeds and mashes 
that are for sale in practically all markets. These special 




FIG. 140— CONVENIENT MASH FEEDERS FOR 
TOUNG CHICKS 

These flat troughs with strips of wire cloth over the 
tops are just the thing for providing dry mash for 
chicks. The wire cloth should be cut to fit inside the 
trough. It rests on the mash and follows it down as the 
chicks consume it. So protected the mash is always read- 
ily accessible but the chicks cannot scratch it out. Cour- 
tesy of Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station. 

feeds, if the buyer is careful to secure the best brands, 
are wholesome, nutritious, and well balanced, containing 
practically everything that the chicks need with the ex- 
ception of green feed. Some chick feed mixtures contain 
grit and charcoal but, except when buying in quite small 
quantities, it is better to purchase these materials sepa- 
rately and feed them in hoppers rather than to scatter 
them in the litter. If the mash mixture does not con- 
tain meat scrap this should be added in proper proportion. 
Ready-mixed mashes are available in which pow- 
dered milk is used in place of meat scrap and this ma- 
terial is believed by many to be especially good for 
chicks. Where skim milk or powdered milk is fed, only 
a limited amount of meat scrap, if any, need be sup- 
plied, though an occasionally feed of fresh meat or finely 
ground butcher scraps are always a desirable addition to 
the ration. As a rule, the poultryman can buy ready- 
mixed feeds cheaper than he can make up good mixtures 
at home, unless he is using large quantities. Careful tests 
at state experiment stations, and the general experience 



88 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



of practical chick raisers, indicate clearly that chicks will 
dc better on a ration affording reasonable variety and 
consisting of about equal proportions of cracked grains 
and mashes. 




FIG. 141 — FEEDING COOP FOR YOUNG CHICKS 
In order to protect the young- chicks from being- 
trampled by the larger ones at feeding time, an enclo- 
sure similar to the one shown above will be found very- 
convenient. It will also protect, the food from rain in wet 
weather, if the top is covered with prepared roofing. 

Chicks Must Be Kept Busy 

Almost any method of feeding that makes the chicks 
work for their ration most of the day is a good one. The 
problem of keeping them busy is quite simple if the 
chicks can run at large, as their natural activity will keep 
them on the move practically all the time. If in confine- 
ment however, either indoors or in small yards, it is 
scarcely possible to maintain them in good thrifty con- 
dition without the liberal use of litter on the floor of 
the brooder or pen. As has already been pointed out in 
Chapter X, the best litter for chicks is short-cut alfalfa 
hay. The chicks will eat some of the leaves and finer 
particles, and will be the better for doing so. The mater- 
ial is just fine enough and light enough to make good 
scratching, and if the hay is properly cured it will be 
reasonably free from dust. Short-cut alfalfa may seem 
rather expensive but, in the long run, it is the cheapest 
litter that can be used for the first three weeks, results 
considered. 

Persons who have clean clover hay, free from mold, 
and can have it cut into short lengths at little cost, will 
find it desirable and less expensive than alfalfa. In the 
absence of either of these, clean oat or wheat straw, 
chopped as fine as possible will answer fairly well, but 
there is no other material generally available that is so 
desirable as alfalfa or clover. By the seventh day the 
chicks should be able to handle about two inches of litter 
and thereafter the amount should be increased as they 
grow, aiming always to have enough so that they will 
have to spend a good part of the day digging for the 
grain part of their ration. 

Chicks need some form of animal matter by the end 
of the first week. Finely chopped hard-boiled eggs if 
available, may be added to the soft feed, and fresh meat 
cut in very small pieces is excellent. As a matter of con- 
venience however, most chick raisers use a good grade 
of commercial meat scrap, sifting out the coarse parti- 
cles until the chicks are large enough to eat it without 
waste as it comes from the bag. Start with not over five 
per cent in the mash, gradually increasing to fifteen per 
cent, beyond which it is not considered advisable to go 
until the chicks are out on range. 

After the chicks are two or three weeks old it is 
practical to feed meat scrap alone in hoppers, provided 
the ration as a whole is satisfactory. If the chicks are 
dissatisfied with the rest of the ration however, there is 
danger that they will eat more meat scrap than is good 
for them, and overconsumption of this highly concen- 
trated food will result promptly in digestive disorders. 



Any danger of its being too freely consumed will be 
avoided when added to the mash, and it also will make 
the mash more appetizing, which usually is desirable. 

Skim milk is especially good for chicks, and may 
be supplied with safety in any desired quantity. Use it 
for mixing all moist mashes, and supply it for drinking 
in water founts. Where it is freely used it is not neces- 
sary to provide any form of meat. It may be given 
either sweet or sour, though it is not generally believed 
to be desirable to give sweet and sour milk alternately. 
It is important to observe strict cleanliness in the ves- 
sels used in feeding milk, washing and scalding them 
thoroughly at frequent intervals. 

The chicks need green feed, practically from the 
start, and should have it regularly at least once a day. 
It should be fed sparingly at first until the chicks be- 
come accustomed to it, after which they may be given 
all they will clean up. Use any succulent material avail- 
able, such as cabbage or lettuce leaves, mangels, pota- 
toes, etc. Feed the latter sparingly, however, as they 
are apt to cause diarrhea if too freely used. Tough, 
stringy green feed such as grass, overgrown oat sprouts, 
etc., cannot be safely fed unless chopped into quite small 
pieces. The more tender the material provided the bet- 
ter it will be for the chicks. If sprouted oats are pro- 
vided, sprout "them in a warm place so that they will 
grow quickly, and feed when the sprouts are not over, 
two inches long, to insure their- being tender. At this] 
stage the chicks will eat both sprouts and roots, and also 
will find a good deal of healthful exercise in picking at 
the kernels. Be careful never to feed moldy sprouted 
oats, however. 

The supply of grit must never be neglected. Prob- 
ably a good limestone grit is most suitable for the pur- 
pose. It should be kept in hoppers where the chicks can 
help themselves to it at all times and, in addition, should 
also be mixed with the regular mash feeds as already 
suggested. Use fine chick grit at first, changing to a 
larger or intermediate size after the chicks are a few 
weeks old. 

Young chicks like charcoal and will eat it greedily. 
As it appears to be quite helpful in preventing certain 




FIG. 142— DEEP LITTER FEEDING 



Several weeks' supply of cracked grains is 
buried in a thick coat of litter as illustrated above, 
and the chicks get plenty of exercise digging for 
it. There is little leg weakness among deep-litter 
fed chicks. 

digestive disorders, it should always be supplied. Get 
granulated charcoal, with the fine dust sifted out, and 
feed it in hoppers. 

Careful experiments, particularly those made at the 
N. Y. (Geneva) Experiment Station, indicate that it is 
desirable for the chick ration to have a larger propor- 
tion of mineral matter 'ash) than « reg-lsrly provided 



FEEDING THE BROODER CHICKS 



89 



by the ordinary feeds used. Meat scrap contains a suf- 
ficient amount of bone to meet most requirements, but 
the particles usually are entirely too large for small 
chicks. Until they are big enough to eat meat scrap as 
it comes from the bag, the best way of supplying this' 
deficiency in the ration is to add about five per cent of 
bone meal to the mash mixture. 

Home-Mixed Rations 

While ready-mixed chick feeds and mashes are much 
more convenient for the average chick raiser than home 
mixtures, these may often be employed at a marked 
saving in cost, particularly on farms and in grain-grow- 
ing sections generally, provided they are used in quanti- 
ties sufficient to make it worth while to give proper at- 
tention to their preparation. Home mixtures are apt to 
be variable in quality or in composition, lacking in vari- 
ety, and poorly milled. Grains cracked at local mills 
always contain a large proportion of particles either too 
coarse or too fine, representing a serious waste in either 
case unless screened out. Home-mixed mashes also are 

apt to be poorly 
balanced unless 
the feeder follows 
a definite formula. 
If home mixing 
is practiced, see to 
it that the cracked 
grains are careful- 
ly screened to re- 
move meal and 
particles too large 
to be fed safely. 
Provide reason- 
able, but not ex- 
treme variety, and 
follow a formula 
of proved value, 
which calls for 
grains and meals 
that are obtainable 
in the local mar- 
ket, if possible to 
FIG. 143— CROSS SECTION OF MASH < „„ wv,;i~ ,~™„ 
AND GRAIN HOPPER d ° SO - Whlk SOme 

This illustration gives all necessary g ralr >s are gener- 
dirnensions for hopper illustrated in a \\y regarded as 
Fig:. 146. Can be made in any desired , . 

length. more desirable 

than others, there 
are none that are indispensable, and the practical thing 
to do in any case is to use the cheapest and most avail- 
able feeds, avoiding too great dependence on any one 
kind and making sure that the total ration is reasonably 
well balanced. 

Since corn, wheat and oats are obtainable by most 
persons, a practical formula for the cracked grain or chick 
feed mixture is: 

100 pounds of cracked wheat. 

100 pounds of fine cracked corn. 

100 pounds of pinhead or steel-cut oats. 

If the latter cannot be obtained, use fifty pounds of rolled 
oats instead. It is not advisable to use the latter freely 
however, as the particles are large and too easily found. 
With a mixture containing these three grains, it does not 
matter greatly whether anything else is included, though 
cracked kafir corn, milo, hulled barley, etc., may be used 
freely, if obtainable at reasonable cost. Such seeds as 
hemp, millet, etc., if used at all, should be added only 
in limited quantities. 

A good mash to be fed either dry or moist in con- 





FIG. 144- 



-A SIMPLE SHADE FOR THE WATER 
FOUNT 



The outdoor water fount should always be protected 
from the sun in hot ■weather. If natural shade is not 
available, put the fount in an open box of suitable size, 
with the open side turned toward the north or northeast. 

nection with the above cracked-grain mixture is made 
after the following formula: 

100 pounds of cornmeal. 

100 pounds of coarse brown middlings. 

50 pounds of white middlings or low-grade flour. 

50 pounds of rolled oats or oat flour. 

15 to 80 lbs. of meat scrap (increase gradually to maximum). 

After the chicks are two weeks old, substitute bran 
for brown middlings and increase the meat scrap gradual- 
ly to forty pounds. The physical condition of the mash 
has a good deal to do with its palatability, and since the 
meals mentioned vary in degree of fineness, this formula 
should be considered as more or less tentative, changing 
the proportions a little, if necessary, in order to get a 
satisfactory mixture — that is, one that the chicks will eat 
readily and that will not be too sticky or gummy when 
moistened. 

A Successful Feeding Method 

The general principles of chick feeding both as to 
rations and methods, have been briefly covered in the 
foregoing treatment of the subject. There are many how- 
ever, who require a specific method and more detailed in- 
structions and for their benefit the following schedule has 




FIG. 145— GROWING CHICKS ON RANGE 
View on poultry plant at Wisconsin Experiment Sta- 
tion. Chicks with good houses, plenty of range, and 
plenty of shade in warm weather should grow without 
a check, and there should be few losses among them. 



90 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




FIG. 146— MASH AND GRAIN HOPPER FOR GROWING 
CHICKS 
When the chicks are a couple of months old and can 
have practically free range, they may be hopper fed on 
both mash and grain, if desired. The two-compartment 
hopper here illustrated, will hold several days' supply. It 
is provided with a rainproof top so that it can be placed 
outdoors. 

been prepared. It is by ho means the only way in which 
chicks can be successfully fed, but that it is a practical 
and successful one, the experience of countless chick rais- 
ers has abundantly proved. 

First Day. Supply neither feed nor water. Allow the 
chicks to come out from under the hover, but give them 
only a limited amount of room and watch them carefully 
to see that at no time during the day do they become 
chilled, or even uncomfortable while out, and that the 
hover temperature is maintained at about 100 degrees at 
the level of the chicks' back and a short distance inside 
the hover curtain. 

Second Day. The chicks are to have no feed during 
this period, but should be supplied with lukewarm drink- 
ing water. If they appear to be dissatisfied, sprinkle chick 
grit over a feeding tray and let them have all they want 
of this. 

Third Day. Assuming that the hatch has begun dur- 
ing the night or in the morning, the first feed may be 
given on the morning of the third day — not too early 
however, if the house is cold. Give a light feed of bread 
crumbs moistened with milk, or 
water if milk is not available. Moisten 

the bread crumbs just enough to 

make them soft but not pasty. 

Sprinkle fine chick grit or sharp 

sand over the bread crumbs to make 

certain that the chicks will get the 

necessary amount of this highly im- 
portant part of their ration. See that 

they all come out from under the 

hover for this first feed, but if there 
are any of the late-hatched ones that 

are not hungry or are still a little 

weak, let them go back under the 

hover at once or return them by 

hand. Give the others three to five 

minutes at the feeding trays, if they 

want that much time, but the instant 

their hunger is satisfied, put them 

back under the hover, unless they re- 
turn voluntarily, and remove the feed- 
ing trays. Feed again at noon and 

early in the evening. Provide water 

in drinking founts and place these 



where the chicks can get at them whenever they come 
out from under the hover, but watch them closely and 
see that none get wet, and that they do not spend much 
time about the founts. 

Fourth and Fifth Days. Feed moistened bread crumbs 
five times, or morning, noon, and evening, and middle of 
forenoon and afternoon. Give them about three minutes 
in which to satisfy their hunger and then remove the 
trays. Whatever feed is left on the trays should be 
scraped off and added to the ration given to the larger 
fowls. Mix a fresh batch for the chicks each time. Al- 
ways sprinkle chick grit or sharp sand over the feed 
when putting it before the chicks, and continue to do 
this until they are ten days to two weeks old. Chicks ap- 
parently cannot be trusted to eat as much grit as they 
really need when it is supplied only in hoppers. 

Sixth and Seventh Days. Give the chicks five feeds 
as on the preceding day, but limit the quantity and, after 
removing the surplus, sprinkle a little chick feed on the 
litter where the chicks can readily find it. Use only a 
small amount and provide an extra fine mixture for the 
purpose. The best way to secure this fine-cracked feed 
is to run some of the regular chick feed mixture through 
a hand mill or coffee grinder. A limited amount of a 
good mash mixture may also be mixed with the bread 
crumbs, gradually increasing the proportion of the mash 
and decreasing the bread crumbs until the latter can be 
entirely omitted early in the second week if it is desir- 
able to do so. If bread crumbs are available at low cost 
however, they may continue to form a part of the mash 
mixture for an indefinite time. Sprinkle a little chick 
feed over the litter after each light feeding of moist feed 
as on the previous day. 

Eighth Day. If the directions for preceding days 
have been properly carried out the chicks now will be 
ready for the alternate feeds of moist mash and chick 
feed which will form their regular ration for the next two 
or three weeks. Continue to feed the moist mash morn- 
ing, noon, and evening, and feed the cracked grains 
lightly in the middle of the forenoon and afternoon. Some 
of this should be buried in the litter so that the chicks 
will have to dig for it. If they are healthy, vigorous 
chicks and only a limited amount of litter is used, they 
will soon learn to hunt for it, and will enjoy doing so. 




FIG. 147 — OUTDOOR FEEDING FRAME 

This illustration shows a cheap enclosure for small chicks, where they may 
be fed without interference from the larger members of the flock. Photo from 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



FEEDING THE BROODER CHICKS 



91 



At first it is necessary to use a good deal of care as to 
the amount of chick feed that is supplied and the depth 
of litter in which it is buried, but the latter may be in- 
creased rapidly, and by the end of the second week they 
should he able to negotiate several inches of fine, light 

material such as 
short-cut alfalfa. 
Thereafter, until they 
can be outdoors most 
of the time, they 
should be compelled 
to spend several 
hours daily searching 
in the litter for the 
cracked-grain portion 
of the ration. It is 
not advisable to try 
to make the chicks 
clean up every par- 
ticle of the chick feed 
in the litter. There 
should always be a 
little that they can 
get by hunting for it, 
but do not supply it 
so liberally that they 
can find it without 
effort. 

Second to Fourth 
Week. The method 
of feeding as out- 



• ' 


•. 


• ■ ?y 




^flBfl -M vlM^k. 


' \ 




^j^^ 






m 





FJG 148 — QUICK GROWING 
BROILERS 
The two chicks shown in above 
illustration were deep-litter fed, 
by the method described in this 
chapter. When 8 weeks old they 
reached a net weight of 4 lbs. 



lined for the eighth day may be continued practically 
without change until the chicks are about four weeks old, 
when thej- will begin to, tire of chick feed and will show 
a marked preference for larger grains. The mixture then 
should be changed to supply the regular scratch grains 
provided for adult fowls, or make up a special mixture to 
consist of equal parts by weight of coarse cracked corn, 
whole wheat and clipped oats. A double portion of corn 
may be used if price makes it an object, and if clipped 
oats are not available, whole oats may be fed after soak- 
ing them several hours or boiling for one hour. 

Never feed dry whole oats to young chicks, as the 
sharp points are liable to cause serious trouble. Oats 
that have been boiled or soaked may be used with entire 
safety however, and if desirable they may form 50 per 
cent of the total grain ration after the chicks are several 
weeks old. The mash mixture also should be changed 
about the same time, using ICO pounds of corn meal, SO 
pounds of bran, 50 pounds of white middlings or low- 
grade flour, 50 pounds of ground whole oats and 50 
pounds of meat scrap. The number of daily feeds may 
now be reduced to three, and this modified ration may be 
continued without change until the chicks are practically 
full grown. Two of these feeds should be cracked grains 
in litter or scattered broadcast over the range, with one 
feed of moist mash, and a hopper of dry mash always 
available. Chicks fed by this method and with the ration 
here suggested should make rapid growth and escape 
many of the ailments and losses that result from less 
suitable rations or improper methods of feeding. 

Simplified Feeding Methods 
While the method that has just been described, and 
others of a similar nature, will produce results that can- 
not be equalled by "easy" methods, it must be conceded 
that they involve a good deal of labor and almost con- 
stant attendance, which many chick raisers are not able 
or willing to give. To meet such conditions there are 



various modifications that may be introduced, chiefly in 
the way of hopper feeding, that will materially reduce the 
time and labor required. If these changes are wisely made 
and if the caretaker does not pursue labor-saving methods 
and "efficiency" to the point where the well-being of his 
flock is sacrificed, reasonably good results may be secured. 

It should be clearly understood that the exact num- 
ber of feeds to be given daily is- important only in so far 
as it assists in keeping the chicks busy. But the average 
chick raiser finds that in proportion as he reduces the 
number of feeds the difficulty of maintaining healthful 
activity increases. For this reason, it is not advisable 
for the beginner to attempt too much in the way of sim- 
plified feeding methods. It is much wiser for him to 
follow practices that are known to be safe and effective, 
rather than to endanger the thrift or the lives of his 
chicks merely to avoid a little labor. 

In dry-mash feeding, the mash is placed in hoppers, 
or feeding troughs similar to the ones shown in Fig. 140, 
and the chicks are given access to it at all times. If care 
is taken in the preparation of the mash, making it suf- 
ficiently palatable so that the chicks will eat enough "of 
it, and avoiding making it so appetizing that they will 
depend mainly upon it instead of scratching in the litter 
for grain, it is entirely practical to feed in this way. The 
chick feed, also, instead of being given in installments 
through the day can be supplied at one time, morning or 
evening as convenient, after the chicks are a couple of 
weeks old, provided sufficient litter is used. 

Deep Litter Feeding Method 

A method of feeding that has been adopted by many 
with good results, and which represents the practical 
minimum in labor required, is known as the deep litter 
method, which the chicks, during the first four to six 




FIG. 149— A CORN FIELD IS EXTRA GOOD AS A 

RANGE FOR GROWING CHICKS IN HOT 

WEATHER 



92 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



weeks, are fed exclusively on chick feed and meat scrap. 
The entire amount of chick feed required for this length 
of time is buried in the litter when the chicks are about 
one week old, and meat scrap is supplied in hoppers, al- 
lowing them to help themselves to it at will. 

Assuming that the flock is to consist of 75 to 100 
chicks, and will occupy an indoor pen measuring about 
5x10 feet, the procedure is as follows: Spread on the 
floor of the pen a layer of about two inches of short-cut 
alfalfa and sprinkle over it ten to fifteen pounds of chick 
feed. Follow with alternate layers of litter and feed 
until the material is eight inches deep all over the floor 
and 50 pounds of chick feed has been buried. This amount 
should last the chicks about four weeks, and nothing else 
is fed except meat scrap as noted, also a liberal allow- 
ance of green feed daily. Since the chicks must scratch 
for practically every bit of feed they get, they will be 
found busily digging in the litter most of the time. 

A modification of this plan, as adopted by many, con- 
sists in supplying a good dry-mash mixture in hoppers, 




moistened with sour skimmed milk, and shredded green 
food, fine grit, and charcoal are to be scattered over the 
food. In addition to this moist feed, a shallow tray con- 
taining cracked grains (Mixture No. 2) is kept before the 
chicks. To this grain mixture is to be added a small 
amount of dry mash (Mixture No. 3). After the first 
five days feed cracked grains (Mixture No. 2) in light lit- 
ter twice a day. The nursery feed (Mixture No. 1) is dis- 
continued after' five days, and a mash (Mixture No. 3) is 
moistened with sour skimmed milk, and fed three times 
a day. This mash mixture also is kept before the chicks 
in shallow trays. 

This feeding is continued to the end of the fourth 
week except that after the second week the moist mash is 
given only twice a day. From the fourth to the sixth 
week, or until the chicks are on range, one feed of moist 
mash is given daily, dry mash is always available in hop- 
pers or trays, and cracked grains (Mixture No. 4) are 
fed in litter twice a day. From the sixth week to ma- 
turity, dry mash (Mixture No. 3) and grains (Mixture 
No. 5) are hopper fed, with one meal 
a day of moist mash if it is desirable 
to hasten development. 

Cornell Chick-Feeding Mixtures 

Mixture No. 1 

8 lbs. rolled oats. 

8 lbs. bread crumbs or cracker waste. 
2 lbs. sifted beef scrap (best grade.) 
1 lb. bone meal. 



PIG. 150 — PROFITABLE RAPID GROWING CHICKS 
When chicks have reached this size the "danger period" is past and with 
proper feeding and care they should grow rapidly to market size or maturity. 



Mixture No. 2 

3 lbs. wheat (cracked.) 

2 lbs. cracked corn (fine.) 
1 lb. bone meal. 

Mixture No. 3 

3 lbs. wheat bran. 
3 lbs. corn meal. 

3 lbs. wheat middlings. 

3 lbs. beef scrap (best grade.) 

1 lb. bone meal. 

Slixture No. 4 

3 lbs. wheat (whole) 

2 lbs. cracked corn. 
1 lb. hulled oats. 

Mixture No. 5 

3 lbs. wheat. 

3 lbs. cracked corn. 






adding to it the proper proportion of meat scrap. As 
this plan removes all danger of the chicks eating more 
meat scrap than is good for them, it probably is a safer 
method for the average feeder than the regular chick 
feed and meat scrap ration. 

Whatever feeding method may be followed during the 
first month or six weeks, after the chicks are well grown 
and can be out on free range it is entirely practical to 
feed both mash and grain in hoppers, though the chicks 
undoubtedly will grow more rapidly if a little hand-feed- 
ing is practiced right along up to maturity. Many suc- 
cessful chick raisers make a practice of providing hop- 
pers containing dry mash and cracked corn for growing 
stock on range, but continue to give mixed grains in the 
morning when the chicks are turned out, and a good 
moist mash in the evening. By doing this they undoubt- 
edly secure more rapid growth and earlier maturity then 
can be expected where exclusive hopper feeding is 
practiced. 

Cornell Rations and Methods for Chick Feeding 
The approved method of chick feeding at Cornell Uni- 
versity, as given in Bulletin 327, is as follows: 

For the first five days feed the chicks five times a 
day with nursery feed (Mixture No. 1). This is to be 



Iowa Station Method of Feeding Chicks 
(Condensed from Iowa Experiment Station Circular No. 17.) 

The chicks generally are taken to the brooder when 
24 to 36 hours old. They may be given water with the 
chill removed, and limited amounts of bone, charcoal, and 
grit. After they are 48 to 60 hours old, they are given 
limited amounts of moist mash (Mixture C) and cracked 
grains, (Mixture A). No more is given than the chicks 
will clean up in 10 or 15 minutes, but they are fed moist 
mash five times a day for the first three or four days then 
reduced to four feeds, and at the end of the first week 
reduced to three feeds a day. 

The first feeds of crack grains are fed in shallow lit- 
ter. The amount of this feed as well as the depth of the 
litter increases as the chicks grow older. At the end of 
the first week the litter is two inches deep. A dish of 
bran or hopper of dry mash is kept before the chicks, 
also bone, grit, and charcoal. By the end of the second 
week the number of feeds of moist mash is reduced to 
two, and the depth of the litter increased to three or four 
inches. As the number of feeds of moist mash decrease 
the amount of cracked grain is increased. 

During the third week the mash (Mixture D) is 
gradually substituted for the mixture C and is fed moist 
two times a day until the end of the four weeks. The 



FEEDING THE BROODER CHICKS 



93 



litter is now five or six inches deep. From the fifth to 
the eighth week only one feed of moist mash is given 
daily and the same mash is kept before them in hoppers. 
Grain mixture B now is substituted for mixture A and 
is fed in the litter once a day. 



Ration II 



Grain Ration "A" 

Fed First 8 Weeks 
Cracked corn 2 
Cracked wheat 1 
Steel cut oat meal 1 



Grain Ration "B" 

Fed After the 8th Week 
Coarsely cracked corn 2 
Wheat 1 
Oata 1 



Ground Feed 



Mash Ration "G" 

Fed First Two Weeks 

Stale bread 3 

Oat meal 3 

Eggs (tested from incuba- 
tor) 4 

Bran 1% 

Corn meal 1% 

Ground bone % 



Mash Ration "D" 

Fed After the Second Week 

Corn meal 3 

Wheat middlings or high 

grade shorts 2 
Wheat bran 1 
Beef scrap 1 
Ground oats 1 
Ground bone % 
Salt 1-10 

Ground feed made moist with sour milk, and beef scrap 
or meat meal fed in hoppers. All numerals in above rations 
refer to proportions by weight. 

Method of Feeding Chicks Recommended Ey U. S. 

Department of Agriculture 

(Condensed from Farmers' Bulletin 624.) 

Young chicks should be fed from three to five times 
daily. Undoubtedly chicks can be grown faster by feed- 
ing five times, than by feeding three times daily, but it 
should be born in mind that more harm can be done by 
overfeeding than by underfeeding, and at no time should 
they be fed more than enough merely to satisfy their ap- 
petites and to keep them exercising, except in the even- 
ing when they should be given all they will eat. The 
first feed given after the chicks are 36 to 48 hours old 
may consist of johnnycake, bread crumbs, or pinhead or 
rolled oats. Feed either of these as convenient, giving 
five feeds daily for the first week, then gradually substi- 
tute for one or two feeds of the nursery feed, finely 
cracked grains, consisting of equal parts by weight of 
cracked wheat, finely cracked corn and pinhead oatmeal 
or hulled oats, to which about five per cent of cracked 
peas or broken rice, and two per cent of charcoal, also 
millet or rape seed, may be added. The above ration can 
be fed until the chicks are ten days to two weeks old, 
when the nursery feed may be discontinued, supplying in 
place of it a good growing mash mixture composed of 
two pounds of bran, two pounds of middlings, one pound 
of corn meal, one pound of low-grade flour or red-dog, 
and ten per cent of sifted beef scrap. This may be placed 
in hoppers and left before them at all times. If fed wet 
use only enough milk or water to make the mash crumbly, 
but in no sense sloppy. As soon as the chicks will eat 
whole wheat, cracked corn and other grains, the small- 
size chick feed can be eliminated. Growing chicks on a 
good range may be hopper fed, providing in one hopper 
a mixture composed of two pounds by weight of cracked 
corn and one pound of wheat, or equal parts of cracked 
corn, wheat and oats. For the dry mash hopper the mix- 
ture previously described may be used. 

Feeding Growing Stock 

As the scope of this book only includes the manage- 
ment of chicks up to the end of the brooding period, their 
subsequent feeding and care has been described but brief- 
ly, and in the most general way. Those who are inter- 
ested in detailed methods of feeding and care of growing 
stock, whether intended for market or for the laying pen, 
are referred to "The Chick Book" (see page 112) in which 
these subjects receive due attention. 

What Not To Do 

So long as the chick raiser keeps to a definite ap- 
proved method of feeding, there will be no special dan- 
ger of his getting into serious difficulties, but where 
changes are made in the ration or method, there are vari- 
ous mistakes that the beginner is apt to make. There 
also are certain errors in feeding into which every one 
is liable to fall at times, and in regard to which a special 
warning should be given. Among the most common of 
these are the following: 

Sloppy Mashes. The moist mash fed to young chicks 
should be mixed with sufficient water or milk to make 



it crumbly, but never sloppy or pasty. In the latter con- 
dition it is positively unwholesome and in a short time 
will certainly cause serious digestive disorders. 

Sour Mashes. Moist food should never be allowed 
to stand for any length of time after mixing, especially 
when intended for newly hatched chicks. A fresh batch 
should be mixed for each feed. Mashes that have be- 
gun to sour are thoroughly unwholesome. In this con- 
nection a warning should be given against providing too 
large quantities of cooked or baked foods, such as johnny- 
cake, which often sours very quickly in warm weather. 

Moldy Feeds. Nothing about which there is the 
slightest suspicion of mold, should be fed. This includes 
grains that have heated, corn meal that has caked, cracked 
corn with discolored hearts — anything in short that is 
"off" in condition. 

Dirty Feed. A good many economical feeders gather 
up the surplus after the chicks have been fed and after 
they have trampled over it and mixed litter and drop- 
pings with it, and keep it for the next feeding. This is 
the poorest of economy, it may do no harm to give this 
material to larger chicks, or to adult fowls, but it should 
never under any conditions be fed to brooder chicks. 

Indigestible Feeds. Certain seeds such as hemp and 
millet have very hard shells which little chicks are not 
able readily to grind, and if used at all should be sup- 
plied only in most limited proportions. Along with these 
may be included feeds carrying high proportions of hulls 
or crude fibre. A comparatively small percentage of 
fibre will seriously irritate the intestines even of adult 
fowls, and such material should never be forced upon 
chicks. For this reason, it is not desirable to load the 
mash down with excessive quantities of bran, oat hulls, 
corn hulls, or similar material. 

Frozen Vegetables. Vegetables in a frozen condition 
or that have been frozen and subsequently thawed out, 
should never be fed to chicks, as they will quickly cause 
intestinal disorders. It is a good deal better to let them 
go without green feed rather than to use such material. 

Feeding Whole Oats. As oats usually are obtainable 
at a lower price per pound than any other grain, many 
persons attempt to use them in feeding young chicks and 
nearly always with disastrous results. The sharp points 
of the hulls may cause direct injury while the excess of 
crude fibre will irritate the intestines. There is no ob- 
jection to the use of whole oats if they are sprouted, 
boiled, or soaked for several hours before feeding. In 
this condition the chicks will be able to pick out the ker- 
nels and discard the hulls. 

Sudden Changes in Rations. Sudden changes in the 
rations supplied to chicks frequently cause indigestion, 
even though the feeds supplied may be entirely whole- 
some. If for any reason it is desirable to make a radical 
change in the feeding, give the chicks an opportunity to 
become accustomed to the new ration gradually. 

Lack of Variety. Where home mixtures are used, 
there often is a lack of variety which, while it may cause 
no serious trouble, usually results in slower growth and 
a noticeable lack of thrift. Numerous experiments have 
shown that a reasonable degree of variety is essential to 
best results, and it is worth while to go to some little 
trouble to provide it, even though it may somewhat in- 
crease the cost of the ration. 

Ice Cold Water. Cold drinking water for young 
chicks is highly objectionable. It should never be more 
than moderately cool for small chicks, and if the water 
vessels must be kept in a cold place they should be re- 
filled with warm water at frequent intervals. 

Insufficient Number of Water Vessels. One of the 
commonest sources of trouble, particularly where large 
flocks are kept, is failure to provide a sufficient number 
of water vessels, so that the chicks when thirsty have to 
struggle and crowd around the only available drinking 
place, under such conditions often get soaked and chilled. 
Supply water vessels enough so that the chicks will never 
have any occasion for crowding to get to the water. 

Feeding Whole Grains Too Soon. The use of fine- 
cracked grains should be continued for three to four 
weeks. Then whole wheat and hulled oats can safely be 
fed, but do not feed whole corn until the chicks are half 
grown. They will eat whole grains at earlier ages than 
here recommended, but it is not wise to supply them. 



CHAPTER XII 



Brooder Houses and How to Build Them 

Essential Requirements in Brooder Houses— Where to Locate Such Houses and How to Build Them— Plans and BiUs 
of Material for Desirable Portable and Permanent Houses for Lamp-Heated Hovers, Colony 
Hovers, Etc. — Yards, Fences and Fixtures. 



w 



raised. 



HETHER brooder houses should be of the per- 
manent or portable type will depend on the 
brooding system used, the location of the plant, 
and the season of the year when chicks are to be 
There can be no advantage in building portable 

houses for winter 
brooding and, for 
the most part, per- 
manent houses are 
not desirable for 
warm weather 
b r o oding, except 
up to the age of 
three or four 
weeks. Where ear- 
ly chicks are to be 
raised however, it 
will pay to build 
a permanent house 
of suitable size. If 
lamp - heated hov- 
ers or brooders 
are to be used, 
the house should 
be provided with 
auxiliary heat in 
the form of a hot- 
water system, or 
even a large coal- 
burning stove, by 
means of which 




FIG. 151— PORTABLE WIRE FENCE 
FOR CHICKS 

i , ° r ™ 2 \ fo0 Qo n?tt l ns ' i make th f iro1 J the room tempera- 
rods 30 to 32 inches long and point 

them so that they can readily be 

pushed in by hand. Rods can be 

passed through the meshes to hold 

them in place but should be fastened 

securely to lower edge of netting so 

it will be held tight against the 

ground, preventing the chicks from 

getting out under it. 



ture can be made 
comfortable. This 
will be much bet- 
ter for the chicks, 
will prevent hav- 
ing to force the 
hover lamps, and will save fuel. A permanent house can 
be equipped with many conveniences such as oil tank, 
work table, feed bins, storage for extra parts or equip- 
ment, etc., which would not be possible in a portable 
house. If the soil is heavy and inclined to be wet and 
cold special provision can be made for drainage, in this 
way making the yards much more serviceable and less 
liable to become contaminated with disease germs. 

Portable houses, as a rule, are more economically 
built than permanent houses, and as they may be moved 
to any part of the plant or farm where they may be de- 
sired, they are especially convenient where the plant is 
a large one, or on a farm where there 
are outlying fields over which the 
chicks can range and from which 
they can pick up a good part of their 
living after they are large enough to 
be safe from hawks and other ene- 
mies. If there is only limited range 
available so that the chicks must be 
raised practically on the same ground, 
year after year, it is probable that 



better results will be realized by building permanent 
houses, planning them so as to secure every practical con- 
venience in carrying on the work. 

Location of Brooder Houses 

Chicks are especially liable to injury from being 
cooped or yarded on wet soil or in damp locations, ana 
whether the house is permanent or portable this point 
must receive careful consideration. It also is important 
that the house should be so located that the chicks will 
not be exposed to severe winds when outdoors. For this 
reason, advantage should be taken of available natural or 
artificial protection such as groves, hedges, or buildings. 
If there is no natural protection it must be provided by 
erecting windbreaks, etc. In most sections a house 
shielded on the north and the west, will be much easier 
kept warm and the chicks can be out in the yard at an 
earlier age and in colder weather than would otherwise be 
permissible. 

The size of the house must be governed by the brood- 
ing equipment to be used, but the tendency to build small 
and cheap should be avoided. Too cheap houses are not 
economical in the long run, and as they rarely are as 
convenient or as well equipped as first-class houses, they 
are harder to care for, take more time for the work, and 
require more fuel to keep the chicks warm. In portable 
houses there is a tendency on the part of many to build 
too small, making the house difficult to care for, increas- 
ing the inconvenience of tending the chicks, and prevent- 
ing its utilization for other purposes. If to be used ex- 
clusively for brooding, a portable house built on the 
plan shown in Fig. 166 will be found to offer some es- 
pecial advantages. Such a house encloses less air 
space than one with a high roof, and for that rea- 
son is warmer. Ventilation is secured without 
exposing the chicks to drafts, and the cost is com- 
paratively low. Portable houses of this type 
usually are built 6x6, 6x8, or 8x8 feet in size — 

Jm)L KL_ 



P 



$'So / fKX> 




□ 



FIG. 152— BROODER HOUSE REARRANGED FOR LAYING PEN 

Brooder houses with raised hover floors can readily be adapted for use as 
laying pens if partitions, hover platform, etc., are made movable. This illus- 
tration shows platform moved back against the house wall and provided with 
perches on trestles, for use of adult fowls. Board along the front edge of 
platform is to keep droppings out of the litter. 



94 



BROODER HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 



95 



rarely larger — and for that reason seldom are employed 

for any other purpose, but stand idle when not used for 

brooding. A more practical house for general use is 

8x10 or 8x12 feet, built with gable or shed roof, which 

will provide room for two or three hovers instead of one, 

thus reducing the 

labor of caring for 

the chicks, and giv- 

4 ing a house large 

enough for a laying 

F1 %^7t°^ 1 Ji?^'l N ^L2 F or breeding flock of 
PORTABLE FENCE PANELS - ° 

This drawing shows manner in " U to ^ hens, a 

which ends of portable fence good-sized fattening 

panels are locked. Also see ° 

Fig. 155. flock, or the many 

other uses to which 
such houses can be put on the poultry plant more or less 
the year around. Whatever style of roof is adopted, the 
side walls should be high enough to provide plenty of 
headroom. It never is advisable to sacrifice this or any 
other practical convenience for a slight saving in cost. 
Piano-box brooder houses are quite popular with many, 
but are open to the objection just noted, that they usual- 
ly are too small for any other use, and too low for 
comfort. 

Permanent compartment brooder houses usually 




?<owaj3 /-Look 
FIG. 154— CHICK INCLINE FOR BROODER OR 
HOUSE ENTRANCE 
This three-sided incline, made of ordinary plaster- 
ing- lath, offers no opportunity for the chicks to get 
underneath or to huddle in corners. All sides slope to 
the brooder or house entrance. 

should be designed so that they can be used for other 
purposes. The partitions may be made movable so that 
the house can be utilized by a winter-laying pen, or for 
fattening crates, surplus males, exhibition stock, or in 
any other way that may be desirable. If an elevated hover 
floor is provided it need not be nailed to the house floor, 
but can be loose so that it may be pushed back against 
the wall and the entire floor space utilized, simply set- 
ting trestles for perches on the platform, with an 8 or 
10-inch board along the edge to keep the droppings out 
of the litter, as shown in Fig. 152. 

Brooder House Construction 

The brooder house should be warmly built and usual- 
ly it should have double walls, though if not to be used 
in winter this may not be necessary. In order to reduce 
the enclosed air space and make the house easier to heat, 
the roof generally is sloped toward the south which makes 
it uncomfortably warm in the summer unless it is ceiled 
overhead and provided with gable ventilators. 

The floor of the brooder house generally should be 
of concrete, if for no other reason than to make it rat- 
proof. Throughout the north the most serious enemy the 
chick raiser has to contend with is rats, and unless the 
house is made proof against them, they may be expected 
to take heavy toll from the brooder flocks. The house 
should have a solid foundation reaching well down into 
the ground and the floor should be 6 to 12 inches above 




the ground level 
so that it will al- 
ways be dry. If a 
board floor is used 
it should be dou- 
ble - boarded, with 
building paper be- 
tween to make it 
warmer, and with 
one-inch netting to 
exclude rats. If 
rats are allowed 
to harbor under 
the house they will 
get the chicks 
sooner or later, in 
spite of all pre- 
cautions, for which 
reason houses with 
board floors should 
be high enough so 
that cats and dogs 
can get under. 

Especial atten- 
tion must be given 
to ventilation so 
that the chicks will 
not be exposed to 
drafts or direct air 
currents, but the 
windows should 

not be too high above the floor. As a rule, it will be 
found most satisfactory to hinge the windows at the bot- 
tom so that they will swing in at the top. The front eave 
should be wide enough to protect the windows when open. 
Whether the rest of the house is spouted or not, there 
should be a trough along the front so that there will be 
no danger of the chicks being caught in the drip from 
the eave as they gather in front of the yard doors dur- 
ing a storm. 

In compartment brooder houses the passageway 
should be wide enough, for convenience — at least three 
feet, and four is better, especially if there are lamps in it 
as shown in Fig. 164. Young chicks soon develop marked 



FIG. 155— END OF PORTABLE 
FENCE PANEL 
Portable fence panels are indis- 
pensable on all poultry plants. Two 
and three feet are the most popular 
widths. Make them any convenient 
length, usually 10 to 16 feet, with 
one upright piece of furring in. 
middle of panel to strengthen the 
rails. If ends are made as shown, 
they will lock, and when tied top 
and bottom with stout cord, will 
stand without posts. Use 1-inch 
mesh netting and lx2-inch furring. 




FIG. 156— CONCRETE INCLINE FOR PERMANENT 
BROODER HOUSES 
Concrete inclines cannot be trampled down or 
washed away by the rain, and will last as long as the 
house itself. 



96 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




FIG. 157— YARD FOR TWO PEN BROODER HOUSE 
Where two broods are kept in one house, the 
yards may be conveniently arranged as shown. Use 
panels made as in Fig. 155, and provide a few short 
lengths for the ends. Reproduced from Bulletin 261, 
Wisconsin Experiment Station. 

ability in flying over partitions and it is desirable to have 
these reasonably high. A width of four feet will answer 
in most cases. The base of the partitions should be of 
solid boards to a height of 18 to 24 inches, to prevent 
floor drafts, and the wire above should be 1-inch mesh. 
Pen doors should be strongly constructed and well braced 
or they will be a source of continual trouble. Double- 
acting spring hinges are desirable on 
such doors. 

Auxiliary heat can be supplied in 
the form of a hot-water heater and 
a coil of pipe, or by means of an or- 
dinary stove. Hot water gives a more 
uniform temperature and a compara- 
tively simple outfit will answer the 
purpose, but if this is considered too 
expensive, a stove will answer, 
though it will be impossible to main- 
tain as uniform heat during the night 
as with a hot-water system. 

Yards for permanent houses should 
be built to meet adult requirements 
so that there will be no difficulty in 

putting the house to other uses when it is desirable to do 
so. Where the soil is heavy or not well drained it will 
pay to provide special drainage for the runs by filling in 
with sand and gravel where this material can be secured 
without too great expense. This can readily be done by 
setting 12-inch planks around the base of the outside 
fence and filling in to a depth of six inches with gravel, 
with a few inches of coarse sand on top. A yard filled 
in this way will be dry and much warmer than one on 
the ground level, and will be practically free from infec- 



tion with gapes which otherwise are liable to play havoc 
with young chicks raised on clay soil. Use durable posts 
and planks or better still, provide a concrete wall or lay 
up field stones in mortar. Do not provide a loose stone 
wall, as the sand will work out and also will push the 
wall out of place. In order to protect the chicks from 
hard winds, the yard should be surrounded by a tight 
board base two feet high, and in exposed locations there 
should be board bases for the partition fences also, using 
one-inch-mesh netting four feet wide above the boards. 

Yards and Fences 

Wherever chicks are grown there is need for more 
or less portable fencing. A plain strip of netting may 
be used, this being held upright by means of heavy wire 
rods pushed into the ground — see Fig. 151. A more dur- 
able and more generally desirable method is to provide 
fence panels such as are shown in Figs. 153 and 155. Al- 
most innumerable uses will be found for such panels, if 
available, and as they can be cheaply made and will last 
many years when properly cared for, there is no economy 
in doing without them. For most purposes the panels 
should be of 1-inch netting 2 or 3 feet wide and ten to 
16 feet long. The frames should consist of 1x2 or 1x3- 
inch furring of some kind of wood that does not split too 






' §, - 


^pfc»l 




•« 'HI 


1 '^ p * 

tali' B8888881 



PIG. 158— ARTIFICIAL SHADE FOR CHICKS 

Where there is no natural shade in the yards it must 
be provided in some such way as this. The air will cir- 
culate more freely underneath if the cover is supported 
well up off the ground. 



FIG. 159— ENLARGING YARDS FOR TWO PEN BROODER HOUSE 
After the chicks have outgrown the first yards (see Fig. 157) these may be 
enlarged in the manner here indicated, without obstructing the entrance to the 
house door. Reproduced from Bulletin 261, Wisconsin Experiment Station. 



easily. Make these frames about two inches wider than 
the netting so that the .selvage will not lap over the edge. 
This will add a couple of inches to the height without 
cost, and the netting will last longer. Stretch the wire 
tightly and staple with plenty of double-pointed tacks. 
Netting staples are apt to split the frames and should 
not be used unless the wood is quite soft. Before put- 
ting on the wire, give the frames a double coat of paint. 

The panel frames should be made by cutting the end 
pieces 2 feet 2 inches long for 2-foot netting or 3 feet 
2 inches for 3-foot netting, laying these on top of the 
side pieces or rails and nailing with wire nails long 
enough to go through and clinch. Provide a middle cross- 
piece for long panels. Use box nails if obtainable in order 
to lessen the danger of splitting. When the panels are 
done they should all be exactly alike, but by turning them 
with the wire side out and in alternately the end pieces 
will engage each other as in Fig. 153 and if fastened to- 
gether with a stout piece of cord or light wire, two or 
three panels will stand up without any other support, 
when properly connected by end panels. It costs com- 
paratively little to make a supply of these panels, but in 
a term of years they will be found more economical than 
loose wire, which soon gets bent out of shape and is 
quickly destroyed, and in point of convenience there is 
no comparison between the two. 

There are various methods of building inclines from 







BROODER HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 



97 



the house to the ground. With portable houses, inclines 
like the one shown in Fig. 154 are convenient, and being 
enclosed on the sides the chicks cannot gather under 
them. As this incline slopes to the door on all three 
sides, it prevents the losses that are apt to result from 
the chicks huddling in corners on either side of a straight 
runway. This incline is made of ordinary plastering lath 
nailed to four 2x2-inch pieces, the ends of which are cut 
to fit snugly against the brooder at the top and to rest 
securely on the ground or house floor at the bottom. 
This incline, properly made, requires no fastenings to 
hold it in place. For permanent houses earth may be 
banked up close to the door sill as in Fig. 132, or better 
still a concrete incline may be provided, as shown in Fig. 
156, which cannot be scratched down or washed away 
by rain or the drip from the roof, and will last as long 
as the house. 

Chicks are especially in need of protection from the 
sun in the summer. Even if the house is cool, which is 
not always the case, the chicks will be the better for out- 
door shade, and if this is not provided naturally by trees, 
etc., the lack must be made up in some other way. Shade 
for yards may be supplied by clumps of corn, sunflowers, 
etc., or by quick-growing vines planted outside the yards 
and supported by the fences. For cheap, temporary shel- 
ters use some such device as is shown in Fig. 158, which 
will not only protect the chicks from the sun, but from 
rain if they happen to get caught out in a sudden shower, 
and will also afford a hiding place from hawks and crows. 
Such shelters may be made in any convenient size, and 



for large flocks are conveniently made with a gable roof 
high enough so that the enclosed space may readily be 
kept clean. 

The preceding comments on house construction, 
yards, etc., will be found to apply quite generally to 
brooder houses of whatever type, and under practically 
all conditions where they are to.be used. In the follow- 
ing pages some practical brooder houses are illustrated 
and described in detail. These will be found to conform 
closely to preceding statements as to what is desirable 
in such houses, and they are well adapted to the needs 
of chick raisers wherever located, or may be made so 
with slight changes. Persons desiring further information 
on this subject, are referred to "Poultry Houses and 
Fixtures" (see page 112) in which many additional plans 
for both permanent and portable brooder houses will be 
found. Plans for houses designed expressly for brood- 
ing ducklings are given in "Ducks and Geese" (see 
page 112). 

Colony House for One Hover 

The house illustrated in the plans in Fig. 160 is a good 
small house, and is designed for a single lamp-heated 
hover accommodating 50 to 100 chicks. If the cockerels 
are culled out as they reach market size the pullets can 
remain here until they are fully grown and are ready to 
go to the laying pens. The house is 6x6 feet with a win- 
dow and muslin-covered opening on the south side and an 
opening for additional ventilation in the rear when needed. 
The siding should be of tongue-and-groove boards and it 



MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 

0£PY Of POULTRY HUSBANORY. 



COLONY 8B00DER HOUSE 
JULY, i Sit 2; 



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FIG. 160 — PLAN FOR COLONY HOUSE FOR BROODER CHICKS 
This plan, prepared by Massachusetts Agricultural Coiieg-e, gives complete details for a 6x6-foot portable house suit- 
able for one lamp-heated brooder or hover. Will comfortably accommodate a flock of 75 to 100 chicks as long as thej 
need brooding. 



98 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



is roofed with a good grade of pre- 
pared roofing. This house is pro- 
vided with a board floor, and no run- 
ners are indicated as the object with 
this house is to keep it close to the 
ground for convenience in teaching 
the chicks to run back and forth. 
This plan is safe however, only where 
there is no danger from rats. If the 
house must be blocked up to prevent 
rats harboring underneath, it will be 
better to provide runners which add 
greatly to the convenience of mov- 
ing it. 

House for Two Brooders 

Having two or three hovers in one 
house reduces the amount of travel 
between the broods when small, and 
after the chicks no longer need arti- 
ficial heat the hovers and partitions 
■can be removed and all broods al- 
lowed to run together in one flock, which saves time and 
trouble all through the growing season. Such a house 
is shown in Fig. 162 which illustrates the kind in use 
at the Maine Experiment Station. It is described in Maine 
Bulletin 471 as follows: 

"The houses are built on two 16-foot pieces of 4 by 
6-inch timbeis, which serve as runners. The ends of the 
timbers, which project beyond the house, are chamfered 
on the underside to facilitate moving. The houses are 
12 feet long; some of them are 6 feet and others 7 feet 
wide; 7 feet is the better width. They are 6 feet high 
in front and 4 feet high at the back. The frame is of 
2x3-inch lumber; the floor is double boarded, and the 
building is boarded and covered with a good quality of 
heavy roofing paper. Formerly shingles were used for 
the outside covering, but paper is preferred and is now 
used exclusively. This kind of covering for the wall is 
not so likely to be injured in moving as shingles. A door 
2 feet wide is in the center of the front and a 6-light 
window, hinged at the top, is on each side of it. Two 
brooders are placed in each of these houses and SO to 60 
chicks are put with each brooder. A low partition sepa- 
rates the flocks while they are young. The houses are 
large enough so that a person can go in and do the work 
comfortably, and each one accommodates 100 chicks un- 
til the cockerels are large enough to be removed. 





FIG. 161— OPEN FRONT BROODER HOUSE 
A cheap, simple house like this can be used to excellent advantage on many 
poultry farms. It is too open for portable hovers, but enclosed brooders, either 
indoor or outdoor, can be operated conveniently here early in the season when it 
would not be practical to have the chicks outdoors. 



FIG. 162— A CONVENIENT TWO-PEN BROODER HOUSE 
This house is 7x12 feet and accommodates two brooders of the kind shown in 
Fig. 108. After the hovers are no longer needed the yard partition (not shown 
in this illustration) is removed, and the two broods run together. Photo from 
Maine Experiment Station. 

"An improvement has recently been made in these 
brooder houses by providing for better ventilation. When 
the weather is very hot there is no movement of air with- 
in one of these houses, even though the door and win- 
dows are open. The air within the house is practically 
stagnant and, on account of its relatively small volume, 
becomes intensely hot and stifling when the temperature 
outside gets high. The effect on the chicks under such 
circumstances is bad. They retreat to the houses to get 
shade, only to be injured if not killed by the hot, stifling 
air of the house. To remedy this difficulty a slot 2 feet 
long and 1 foot wide has been cut in the back of each 
house high up under the eaves. This slot is closed with a 
wooden slide running in grooves which are put on the 
outside of the house. The opening is covered on the in- 
side with 2-inch mesh chicken wire. On very hot days 
the slide is pulled out completely so as to expose the 
whole opening of the slot. At night or during a period 
of wet, cold weather the size of the opening is regulated 
to suit the conditions. It enables one to keep a current 
of fresh air through the house in the warmest weather. 
The effect on the well-being of the chicks during a period 
of hot weather is most marked and satisfactory." 

Yarding is something of a problem where two or 
three flocks are kept together, especially where it is de- 
sired to make certain, that the two lots do not mix. They 
may be yarded as in Fig. 162, using 
a middle partition which is not shown 
here, or as in Figs. 158 and 159, the 
method employed at Wisconsin Sta- 
tion. Portable panels such as have 
previously been described are most 
convenient for making yards, short 
length panels being provided to make 
the yard narrow. If the short panels 
are 3 feet long the yards can be cov- 
ered by using a regular 3-foot panel. 
Later on the yards may be enlarged 
,as shown in Fig. 160, without ob- 
structing the door. 

At the Wisconsin Station a partic- 
ularly good feature in use on colony 
houses for growing stock is a small 
door located about three feet above 
the floor, as shown in Fig. 165. This 
is left open at night so that the 
chicks can get out on the range at 



iiitilt 




BROODER HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 



99 



daybreak instead of having to await 
the convenience of the caretaker 
who may have too many duties to 
get round to all houses as early 
as is desirable. This door should 
not be used until the chicks are 
pretty well grown, nor should it be 
left open in stormy or cold weather. 
The illustration shows how the 
space below the door is protected 
by means of a piece of sheet iron, 
making it impossible for rats to climb 
up. A small platform is provided on 
the inside for the chicks to alight 
upon when they fly up, and they are 
never long in learning the use of 
the door. 

Open Front Compartment Brooder 
House 

For use with indoor brooders, fire- 
less brooders, and for sheltering out- 
door brooders early in the season, the brooder house 
shown in Fig. 161 will be found quite convenient and low 
in cost. It is not intended for use in extremely cold 
weather, but is designed simply to provide shelter for 
brooders and chicks when it is not convenient or desir- 
able to have them out, and it contributes greatly to the 
comfort of the attendant in the uncertain, stormy weather 
that often is encountered early in the spring. It is not 
recommended for the use of lamp-heated hovers unless 
these are suitably enclosed, or the front of the pens pro- 
vided with a cloth curtain. 

The house is of the simplest and most economical con- 
struction. The size of the pens can be adapted to the 
particular type of brooder used, but should never be less 
than 6x6 feet, and 8x8 will be much better. For small 
flocks such as usually are placed in lamp-heated brooders, 
there is no advantage in making the house more than 10 
feet deep. Good-sized doors are provided in the front 




FIG. 163 — CROSS SECTION OF PERMANENT BROODER HOUSE 



of each pen, making them large enough so that brooders 
can be moved in or out without difficulty, and alternate 
partitions should be solid so that there will be no drafts 
sweeping through the house in windy weather. The open 
front is enclosed with small-mesh netting. Where spar- 
rows are liable to be a nuisance, it will pay to use Yz or 
%-inch mesh netting, as they readily pass through 1-inch 
meshes. 

No provision was made in the house here illustrated 
for protecting the front under any condition, but if 
located where rain or snow is apt to beat in, a hood ex- 
tending forward three or four feet will assist greatly in 
keeping the floor dry. For convenience in caring for the 
chicks it is important to leave the front unobstructed by 
fences. If the chicks are not to be kept in the pens more 
than three weeks no yards at all need be provided, but 
as this house furnishes excellent summer quarters and 
probably will be in use most of the time, yards should be 

Wall Bracked 

/s'-o"— ^ »f- f'-ef * \ \ 




FIG. 164— FLOOR PLAN OF PERMANENT BROODER HOUSE 



100 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




FIG. 165— ELEVATED CHICK DOOR 
After the chicks are a couple of months old they 
should be let out of their houses at daybreak in good 
weather. This can be done without inconvenience by 
providing' an elevated door for the colony house, which 
can be left open all the time. Rats and other enemies 
are prevented from gaining- access by the strip of sheet 
iron or tin nailed over the siding below the door. Cour- 
tesy of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 



warm; 60 to 65 degrees is warm enough, as a rule. The 
individual hovers can be depended upon to provide the 
necessary additional heat without at any time having the 
lamps turned dangerously high. 

As this house is intended for cold weather brooding 
it is ceiled with £|-inch ceiling boards. The additional 
cost of doing this will be amply repaid by the smaller 
amount of fuel required. Lath and plaster may be used 
if preferred, but, under ordinary conditions, ceiling is 
much better suited to poultry-house construction. Build- 
ing paper should always be tacked to the studs before 
siding or ceiling is put in place. A layer of sheathing 
paper should also be nailed to the lower side of the ceil- 
ing joists or rafter ties before the ceiling is nailed on. 
Ventilation openings should be provided in the ceiling, as 
shown in Fig. 163. In small houses it is sufficient to 
have louvered ventilators in each gable, but in houses 50 
feet or more in length it is necessary to provide roof 
ventilators also. The ground should be graded up to the 
front sill so that the chicks will have easy access to the 
yards. The siding should be carried up close to the roof 
boards, notching the top board carefully for the rafters. 
For cold climates, storm doors for all outside doors are 
advisable. 

The cross section indicates adjustment of windows, 
etc., also construction of partitions. These are to be 
built up of flooring or any other tongue-and-groove lum- 
ber, to a height of 21 inches above the brooder house 
floor, with three-foot wire netting above. Note location 
of ceiling ventilator. This is hung flush with the lower 
fsce of the ceiling, making the opening wide enough so 
that the door will swing freely. It may be conveniently 
swung on a J4-inch iron rod, stapling it tightly to the 
door and letting it turn in staples driven into the ceiling 
on each side. This rod should be stapled to the door 
just enough off center so that it will swing shut when 



built at the back. With the house 
facing south this will locate the 
yards on the north side where the 
chicks will be more comfortable in 
warm weather than in south yards. 

A Permanent Brooder House 
Floor plan and cross section for a 
permanent brooder house are shown 
in Figs. 164 and 163. As here shown 
the house is designed for lamp-heated 
hovers and is equipped with an aux- 
iliary hot water heating system. If 
preferred, either coal or oil-burning 
colony hovers may be installed in- 
stead, no change in plans being re- 
quired aside from omitting the hover 
floor and adapting the partitions to 
individual requirements. Equipped 
with lamp-heated hovers this house 
will accommodate six pens, each with 
a capacity of about 100 chicks. The 
number of pens may be reduced to 
five if preferred, and made five feet 
wide, which is a more convenient 
width for the caretaker. The heater 
is located at the farther end, where 
it is out of the way but easily cared 
for. A heater with a 12-inch grate 
should provide ample heat for a 
house of this size. Do not make the 
mistake of keeping the house too 




PIG. 166— A-SHAPED PORTABLE BROODER HOUSE 
Houses of this type are easier heated than those with higher roofs, since 
less space is enclosed. They are not so drafty in windy weather as houses with 
higher roofs and windows. Are especially well adapted to use with lamp-heated 
hovers or small-sized colony hovers. Photo from Iowa State College of Agri- 
culture. 



BROODER HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 



101 



/O^iSiy /fye&~* 




FIG. 167— FRONT ELEVATION OF SINGLE PEN 
COLONY HOVER HOUSE 
From blue print furnished by Poultry Division of 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



not fastened open. A couple of small blocks, nailed to 
the upper side of the ceiling at either end of the door, 
act as stops. The door may be held open by a weight, 
or by attaching the cord to stud or partition. These ven- 
tilators should be approximately under the highest point 
in the roof, providing two in this 30-foot house and spac- 
ing them 20 feet apart in long houses. • 

Where the brooding pens are five feet wide or more, 
it is desirable to have the pen doors hung on double- 
acting spring hinges, but this cannot be done with four- 
foot pens as in these narrow pens the door cannot swing 
in without striking the hover. 

BILL OF MATERIALS FOR 16x30 FOOT BROODER HOUSE 

Use T Siz , e Length No. of Remarks 

Inches Feet Pieces 

Sills, side 2x4 16 4 

Sills, ends 2x4 16 2 

Joists for hover plat 2x4 12 6 

Plates 2x4 16 4 

Studs, front 2x4 10 9 1 piece cuts 2 

Studs, rear 2x4 12 8 1 piece cuts 2 

Studs, ends and misc 2x4 12 12 

Studs, partition 2x2 12 10 1 piece cuts 2 

Rafters 2x6 14 16 

Rafters 2x6 12 8 1 piece cuts 2 

Ties for rafters 2x4 12 15 

Braces for rafters 1x6 8 15 

Sheathiner for roof 660 ft. bd. meas. Sfcd. 

T & G siding 625 ft. bd. meas. 

Matched flooring' for 
hover platform, parti- 
tions, etc 260 ft. bd. meas. 

%-inch ceiling boards for 

walls and ceiling 1250 ft. bd. meas. 

%x6-inch boards for 
ridge pole, door and 

window frames 125 lin. feet. Surfaced 

Trim lumber, ventila- 
tors, etc %x4 430 lin. feet. Surfaced 

Door and window sills.. 2x8 40 lin. feet. Milled 

Strips for inside win- 
dow sills, and facing 
for front partition 

studs %xl% 75 lin. feet. Surfaced 

Strips for window stops 

and chick runway %xl 150 lin. feet. Surfaced 

Drip cap 30 lin. feet. Surfaced 

6 squares prepared roofing. 

12 squares building paper. 

266 sq. ft. 1-inch mesh netting for windows and partitions. 

11 sashes, 1%-inch, 4-light, 10xl2-inch glass. 

1 4-panel door. 

1 pr. 4-inch butt hinges. 

1 rim lock. 

6 pr. 3-inch butt hinges for partition doors. 

11 pr. 2-inch butt hinges for windows. 

18 2-inch screw hooks and eyes. 

14 ft. of sash chain. 

6 anchor bolts %xl2 in., with 2-in. washers for each end. 

2 iron rods, ^4x20-inch, for swinging ventilator doors in 
ceiling. 

1 6-inch chimney thimble. 
350 bricks for chimney. 



MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE FLOOII 
50 bags of cement. 
120 cu. ft. sand. 

200 cu. ft. cinders or crushed stone. 
160 cu. ft. cinders or stone for filling. 

EQUIPMENT FOR AUXILIARY HEAT 

Water boiler, 12-inch grate. 

5 gal. expansion tank. 

6 feet of 2-inch pipe. 
100 feet of 1 Ms-inch pipe. 

Necessary manifolds, unions, elbows, etc. 
4 wall brackets for supporting pipe. 
2 joints of 6-inch stove pipe." 
2 stove pipe elbows. 

Portable Colony Brooder House 

Brooding with colony hovers heated by means of oil 
or coal-burning stoves is a comparatively new method, 
but one that has become extremely popular wherever 
chicks are raised in large numbers, and that has practic- 
ally revolutionized general brooding practice. As a rule, 
these hovers are placed in any buildings that happen to 
be available, and usually with good results, though speci- 
ally designed houses are more convenient. Where a port- 
able house for use with colony hover is desired, the plans 
shown in Figs. 167 and 168 will be found practical and 
economical. These plans were prepared by the Poultry 
Division of U. S. Department of Agriculture, and houses 
so constructed are in use on the Government Experiment 
Farm at Beltsville, near Washington, D. C. 

The plans provide for a lOxlO-foot house, on run- 
ners for convenient moving, and its general outlines are 
easily understood from the drawings. All dimensions are 
indicated. The floor is of tongue-and-groove flooring, 
laid on 2x6-inch joists set 2 feet apart. Rafters are 2 feet 
apart, and corners and runners are thoroughly braced. 

BILL OF 3IATERIAL FOR PORTABLE COLONY BROODER 
HOUSE 

125 sq. ft. T & G flooring %x2% in. x 10 ft. 
325 sq. ft. T & G flooring %x2% in. x 12 ft. 

6 pes. 2x6 inch x 10 ft. for joists. 

2 pes. 4x6 inch x 12 ft. for runners. 

6 pes. 2x4 inch x 14 ft., for rafters. 
16 pes. 2x4 inch x 12 ft., for braces and studs. 
150 sq. ft. sheathing %xl2 in. x 12 ft., surfaced 1 side. 

1% rolls roofing paper. 

4 sashes, 2 ft. square. 

2 sashes, 18x24 inches. 

Nails, screws, hinges and paint. 




J_ 



J... 



FIG. 168 — FLOOR PLAN OF SINGLE PEN HOUSE 
COLONY HOVER 
From blue print furnished by Poultry Division 
S. Department of Agriculture. 



FOR 
of U. 



102 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 




9' 

HOUSE 



FIG. 169— FRONT ELEVATION OF TWO-COMPARTMENT 

COLONY HOVER 

Permanent House for Colony Hover 

Large brooder flocks necessarily require much greater 
floor space than is provided for flocks of SO to 100, and 
larger houses or rooms, combined with the method of 
heating employed, frequently develop floor drafts to some 
extent. These must be reckoned with, especially in cold- 
weather brooding. One of the best ways of preventing 
this trouble is to build the house so that it can be divided 
into two parts of about equal dimensions, placing the 
hover in one section which is built quite warm but well 
lighted, the other section being used as an exercising 
compartment and generally built with a curtain front. 

The house illustrated in Figs. 169 and 170 has been 
carefully designed to meet the special requirements of 
colony brooding and will be found suitable for the use 
of the great majority of those who are raising chicks by 
this time and labor-saving method. Fig. 170 shows floor 
plan of house, which is 10x24 feet, with a 10-foot hover 
section paititioned off at one end. When the chicks are 
first placed under the hover they are to be confined to 
this room. It is large enough for several hundred during 
the first week or two, but not so large as to invite floor 
drafts, and it can be comfortably heated with less fuel 
than would be required to maintain the correct tempera- 
ture if the entire house were in one room. 

The bill of material for this house provides for a 
double-boarded floor, the subfloor be- 
ing of ordinary 10-inch sheathing, with 
a top floor of tongue -and - groove 
boards, and waterproofed sheathing 
paper between the two. Single board 
floors are almost certain to be drafty 
and cold. Under average conditions 
concrete floors are better for brooder 
houses than boards, because warmer, 
absolutely ratproof, and practically 
indestructible. Concrete floors must 
be well drained and insulated against 
dampness, and chicks must never be 
allowed to run on the bare surface, 
a common cause of leg weakness and 
rheumatism. Where there is no dan- 
ger from rats an ideal plan is to pro- 
vide a concrete floor in the brooding 
room and a plain dirt floor in the ex- 
ercising compartment. 



When the chicks are ten days to 
two weeks old, or when only a few 
days old in mild weather, they should 
be given access to the exercising 
compartment, which is provided with 
a muslin shutter for ventilation. In 
order to be able to graduate the ven- 
tilation, a double shutter is provided 
so that the upper part may be opened 
without disturbing the lower section, 
thus affording fresh air without ex- 
posing the chicks to direct drafts 
from the opening, as would be the 
case if the entire shutter were to be 
opened in severe or stormy weather. 
In mild weather or when the chicks 
are older and have become somewhat 
hardened, the entire shutter may be 
hooked up, thus giving the chicks practically outdoor con- 
ditions without exposure. 

BILL OF MATERIALS FOR PERMANENT COLONY HOVER 
HOUSE 



FOR 



Use 



Size Length No. of 
Inches Feet Pieces 



Remarks] 



Sills, sides ....: 2x8 

Sills, ends 2x8 

Sills, half width 2x4 

Joists 2x6 

Plates 2x4 

Studs, front 2x4 

Studs, rear 2x4 

Studs, ends 2x4 

Rafters 2x5 

Window sills 2x5 

Roof boards 1x10 

T & G siding 7 / 8 x6 

Flooring- %x4 

Subfloor % xlO 

Ceiling 9-16x4 

Door & window frames. .%x6 

Trim boards %x4 

Frame for shutter %x3 1 / 4 

Frame for top shutter... .%x2 

Strip under shutter %x2% 

Strip under window %x2% 

%y 2 squares prepared roofing. 

3 squares sheathing paper for floor 
60 square feet wire netting for curtain front 

4 4-light sashes, 10 in. x 12 in. glass 

2 4-light sashes 9 in. x 12 in. glass (for doors) 

3 pair 8-inch T-strap hinges 

3 hasps 

4 pair 2-inch butt hinges for windows 
1 pair 2V 2 -inch butt hinges for shutters 
1 pair 3-inch butt hinges for shutters 
4 2-inch screw hooks and eyes 

Nails, tacks and paint 



12 


4 








10 


2 








12 


4 




Spike to 


inside 








face of side sill 


10 


11 








12 


4 








8 


10 








10 


6 




1 piece cuts 2 


16 


- 4 




Cut to fit 




12 


13 








10 


2 










325 


ft. 


bd. meas. 


Surfd. 




450 


ft. 


bd. meas. 






300 


ft. 


bd. meas. 






265 


ft. 


bd. meas. 






350 


ft. 


bd. meas. 






150 


lin 


ft. Surfd. 


4 sides 




60 


lin 


ft. Surfd. 


4 sides 




25 


lin 


ft. Surfd. 


4 sides 




20 


lin 


ft. Surfd. 


4 sides 




6 


lin 


ft. Surfd. 


4 sides 




10 


lin 


ft. Surfd. 


4 sides 




FIG. 170— FLOOR PLAN FOR TWO-COMPARTMENT COLONY HOVER HOUSE 



CHAPTER XIII 

Ailments and Diseases of Chicks 



Importance of Being Able Promptly to Identify Ailments and Correct Conditions Before Serious Diseases Develop— How to Make 

Post-Mortem Examinations — Bacillary White Diarrhea and the Diseases With Which It Often Is Confused — 

How to Prevent and Cure All Common Ailments — Parasites and Enemies of Chicks. 



G ™| HICK troubles are of the poultry keeper's own 
making for the most part — the direct result of 
?SS5 abuse or mismanagement. If there were no care- 
aSSaB lessness or neglect there would be comparatively 
little disease and few losses of chicks. The appearance of 
any considerable number of sick individuals in a brooder 
flock is positive proof that someone has not done his 
part. Nature is not a blunderer; chicks are hatched to 
live and grow, not to sicken and die. 

Do not make the mistake of thinking of young 
chicks as weak. They are delicate organisms, it is true, 
'but never weak unless mistreated. A watch is a delicate 
piece of machinery, but a good watch 
is not weak.. If it is treated as a 
watch should be it will keep in good 
running order many years, doing 
more work and showing greater en- 
durance, relatively, than most other 
pieces of machinery in common use. 
So a chick, if it is a good chick and 
treated properly, will live, keep 
healthy, and grow to adult size just 
in the way that nature intended. If 
it fails to do this, it is because some- 
one abused or mistreated it or its 
parents. Chick troubles when they 
appear, can almost invariably be 
traced directly to low vigor in the 
breeding flock, weakened vitality due 
to improper methods with incuba- 
tors or brooders, or to failure to sup- 
ply well-selected and nourishing food. 
It is to be expected, of course, 
that the beginner, with a new science 

to learn, a multitude of details to master, and a living to 
make, will find more or less difficulty in providing just 
che right conditions for his chicks at all times, and in 
avoiding mistakes. Sooner or later, he will have to 
reckon with various disorders in his flocks, and it is of 
the utmost importance that when disease does appear he 
shall be able to recognize it promptly in order to get the 
situation in hand at the earliest moment, before derange- 
ment becomes chronic — before simple ailments become 
incurable diseases. 

To an extent that few realize, the difference between 
a nominal loss of 5 to 10 per cent and a loss of 50 per 
cent is determined by the promptness with which the 
caretaker recognizes the first appearance of trouble, and 
applies suitable correctives. One person sees that some- 
thing has gone wrong — that his chicks are a little 
"dumpy," and he investigates the matter promptly, cor- 
rects the fault, and has no serious consequences to meet. 
Another, careless, thoughtless, or inexperienced, sees 
nothing wrong until the next day, which often is just one 
day too late. Twenty-four hours is a long time to a 
delicate young chick and twenty-four hours of neglect, 
discomfort, or disease may mean heavy losses that can- 
not be prevented by any subsequent care or treatment. 
One of the most important factors in the successful rear- 



ing of chicks, then, is the ability to recognize unfavorable 
conditions before they have a chance to produce serious 
results. 

Chick's troubles usually are not diseases — not at first, 
anyway. They are simply ailments or slight derange- 
ments of the vital organs which, if noticed in time and 
their causes understood, can be corrected without seri- 
ous loss. As a rule there is little to be gained in doc- 
toring sick chicks. When the trouble has reached the 
stage where that becomes necessary there is little hope 
for them. Even if cured they will almost certainly be 
weakened and stunted, and about the worst thing that 



._... 


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FIG. 172— A HEALTHFUL LOCATION FOR THE GROWING CHICKS 



can happen is to have such chicks recover, grow to ma- 
turity, and go into the breeding pen to pass on to the 
next generation, in increasing proportion, their weakness 
and liability to disease. 

Methods of Sanitation 

More attention should be given to sanitation in chick 
raising than is usually the case. Efforts to raise chicks 
with the smallest expenditure of time and money often 
result in providing makeshift coops and buildings, and in 
crowding the chicks into such inadequate quarters that 
injury inevitably results. While chicks apparently will 
do well under quite unfavorable conditions in warm, 
sunshiny weather, they lose ground rapidly whenever a 
cold, rainy spell occurs. There is no reason why this 
should happen if their brooders and coops are what they 
should be, and if these are kept clean. Overcrowding, 
foul hovers, poor ventilation, damp floors, and accumu- 
lated droppings reeking with ammonia fumes are not 
conditions under which any chicks can thrive, and it is 
only when they are raised during the most favorable sea- 
son of the year that they are able to withstand such 
mistreatment. 

Cleanliness ought not to be neglected at any time, 
and is especially important during the danger period — the 

103 



104 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



first four weeks of the chicks' lives. It is not practical to 
lay down definite rules for cleaning coops and brooders, 
renewal of litter, disinfection, etc., since much depends 
upon the season, size of brooder, and number of chicks, 
but there are two rules that are of general application, 
and these are to renew the litter before it becomes damp 
and foul-smelling, and to apply some good disinfectant 
every time the coop or brooder is cleaned. When brood 
coops and outdoor brooders are used, with or without 
chick shelters, they should be moved to fresh ground 
every few days. Coops without floors should not be left 
standing in one spot until the ground becomes soaked 
with filth. 

Some of the most serious diseases that affect young 
chicks are germ diseases, and the poultryman who is 
careless and slovenly in regard to the quarters in which 
the chicks are confined, is simply multiplying infection 




to repeat here what has already been said regarding this 
matter, but the beginner especially is urged to turn again 
to Chapter I on Selection of Breeding Stock, and review 
what will there be found on this vitally important sub- 
ject. There is little that can be done to prevent losses 
due to lack of constitutional vigor, after the chicks are 
hatched, or to remedy the effects of mistakes in artificial 
incubation, though careful brooding and feeding will help. 

First Symptoms of Disease 

In many chick disorders the symptoms are similar, 
though not so much so but that the caretaker can detect 
shades of difference pointing toward specific causes. The 
successful chick raiser does not feel easy in regard to 
any brood so long as there is one mopy chick in it. It 
may be constitutional weakness or some other matter 
affecting a single individual (not all chicks will live under 
even the most favorable conditions) but if 
there is one weakly member of the flock 
there is reason to suspect that in another 
hour there may be two; and in a few hours 
there may be a dozen. 

When chicks are noisy, when they huddle 
in corners or in the sunlight, when they stay 
under the hover for hours at a time, when 
they refuse to go out at mealtime and do not 
eat when they are out, there is every reason 
to fear serious trouble. Such conduct indi- 
cates weakness at least. It may not mean 
anything more serious than that, but study 
the chicks and review everything that has 
been done. Is the temperature of the brooder 
what it ought to be? Does the thermometer 
register correctly? Has the feeding been prop- 
eily done? Have the foods been wholesome 
and pure? Has provision been made for plenty 
of healthful exercise? 



FIG. 173— IT PAYS TO SPADE BARE RUNS 
Spading the bare runs will sweeten the soil, help to keep them free 
from disease germs, and the chicks will greatly enjoy digging in the 
loose earth. If some oats or other grains are scattered broadcast over 
the ground before spading, so much the better. Courtesy of Wisconsin 
Experiment Station. 



and cannot long escape the consequences of his indiffer- 
ence. Disinfectants should be used freely about all coops, 
brooders and runways where chicks are confined. Air- 
slaked lime is good for bare spots and general outdoor 
use, but is too caustic to be used where young chicks are 
liable to get into it with their feet. It should not be 
employed indoors, as the dust arising from it may cause 
serious inflammation of nostrils, throat or eyes. 

Whitewash is an excellent disinfectant and may be 
used freely without any danger of ill effects. Most per- 
sons however, find the use of a good commercial disin- 
fectant more convenient and more effective. Most of 
these are readily prepared for use at any time simply by 
adding water to the disinfectant in the proper proportion, 
and requiring no heating, straining or other preparation 
for use. They may be applied with a brush, whisk broom, 
sprinkling can, or spray pump, as convenient. Where 
liquid disinfectants are used, the brooders, coops, etc., 
should be dry before the chicks are turned back into them. 

Constitutional Vigor 

Constitutional vigor is the foundation of all success- 
ful chick raising, and it is useless to hope for success if 
this fundamental has been neglected. It is not necessary 



Why Chicks Are Noisy 

Chicks peep and are noisy because they are 
uncomfortable. Whether the cause of this 
discomfort is hunger or thirst or the first 
stage of disease the poultryman must deter- 
mine for himself, and if he is a true poultry- 
man he will not leave the chicks until he knows. Often 
this indication of uneasiness is the first warning of seri- 
ous trouble, and if the caretaker is unable otherwise to 
reach a definite conclusion as to the cause he will find 
it worth while to take out a few of the weakest individ- 
uals and kill them and carefully examine their internal 
organs. Many an epidemic could have been arrested at 
the start by such a step. After a number have died it 
may be too late; by that time the whole flock may be 
seriously infected. 

If with all conditions as nearly correct as the opera- 
tor knows how to make them, the chicks do not promptly 
brighten up, it usually is wise to add a little pepper, gin- 
ger or mustard to their feed. One of these mild stimu- 
lants, especially during the latter part of the first week 
when the young chick is completing the absorption of 
the yolk and coming to depend entirely upon supplied 
foods, may prevent serious derangements. The use of 
digestive stimulants is better than resorting to drugs, 
but be careful! Use only enough to make the mash 
slightly warm to the taste and discontinue it as soon as 
it is no longer needed. Chicks that are regularly given 
highly seasoned food are apt to be injured, liver dis- 
orders being extremely common under such conditions. 



AILMENTS AND DISEASES OF CHICKS 



105 



unfavorable influence is liable to result in some affection 
of these organs. A chick that has been kept in an insuf- 
ficiently ventilated nursery chamber in the incubator, that 
has been chilled either in the incubator or in the brooder, 
that has been fed too much, deprived of some needed ele- 
ment such as grit or green feed, given cold water to 
drink, permitted to get wet, crowded in the brooder, kept 
confined to the brooder too long, or exposed to any one 
of a number of possible resources of bacterial infection, 
will almost certainly have digestive disorders, generally 
accompanied with some form of diarrhea. 

Since diarrheal discharges in chicks usually are 
"white," the tendency on the part of most persons is to 
jump to the conclusion that chicks so affected have that 
much-dreaded disease known as bacillary white diarrhea. 
As a matter of fact, however, cases of bacillary white 
diarrhea are few in number as compared with the other 
causes producing similar symptoms, and it is much safer 



Milk Feeding for Young Chicks 
In cases of weakness from any cause it will pay to 
provide a supply of milk for the chicks to drink if it 
can be secured at reasonable cost. It does not seem to 
matter much whether the milk is sweet or sour, but it 
is not considered desirable to give sweet milk at one 
time and sour at another. As it generally is difficult to 
keep milk sweet until the chicks have consumed it, usual- 
ly the more practical plan is to supply it sour all the time. 
Probably the most convenient and sanitary method 
of feeding milk is to use one of. the commercial two-piece 
drinking founts, or a good homemade substitute may be 
made by using a saucer or similar dish with a one-quart 
can inverted in it, as illustrated in Fig. 139. Whatever is 
used, it should be thoroughly cleaned and scalded at fre- 
quent intervals. The milk feeder should be placed where 
the chicks cannot scratch litter into it. If the milk should 
become foul in any way, throw it away, clean the vessel 
thoroughly, and provide a fresh supply. Milk 
is a highly favorable medium for the develop- 
ment of disease germs of various kinds, there- 
fore it must be kept free from contamination. 

The Storrs (Connecticut) Experiment Sta- 
tion has carefully investigated the value of 
milk, both sweet and sour, in the diet of 
chicks, particularly those that are infected, or 
that are liable to become infected with bacil- 
lary white diarrhea. The results secured in 
an extensive series of such experiments are 
announced in the following conclusions, quoted 
from Bulletin 80 of that institution: 

"The feeding of milk to young chicks has 
a most favorable influence on the growth and 
on the lessening of mortality of the chicks. It 
tends to prevent mortality from all causes, 
and if fed soon enough and for a sufficiently 
long period, greatly reduces the death-rate 
caused by bacillary white diarrhea. 

"Sweet and sour milk are apparently of 
equal value in their relation to growth and FIG 174— infected EGG ORGANS OP HEN 

mortality. Furthermore, different degrees of Illustration made from photograph of ovary and oviduct of hen badly 

srmrino- Ar, not alter the result* nf milk infected with bacterium pullorum. 1. Ovary with many of the ova 
souring ao not alter tne results 01 miiK showing discoloration. 2. Large-size, infected ovum, showing decided- 
feedine ed discoloration. As a rule will be found more or less cheesy in texture. 

,._, , , . , . , . , 3. Oviduct showing indications of disease. 4. Clocaca. Photo from 

The value of milk as a food for chicks Storrs Experiment Station. 

does not depend upon any acids that may be 




present, nor upon any particular types of micro-organ- 
isms; but upon one or more of the natural constituents 
of the milk. 

"When milk is supplied freely to chicks, it becomes 
all the more important that they have abundant exercise. 
This applies more particularly to early hatched chicks 
that are brooded wholly or for the most part indoors. 

"The feeding of sweet or sour milk to young chicks 
has in no instance been found to be in any way injurious 
to the chicks employed in our numerous experiments. If 
the milk is clean, and not too old, none but the most 
favorable results should accompany its use as a food 
for chicks. There is no preference in the choice of sweet 
or of sour milk, except from the standpoint of conveni- 
ence. The use of the one or the other should be deter 
mined by the circumstances. However, it seems very de- 
sirable that the same kind of milk be supplied throughout 
the milk feeding period. If the choice is that of sour 
milk, sour milk should be fed to the end." 

General Treatment for Diarrhea in Chicks 

The chick's digestive organs are peculiarly delicate 
during the first few weeks of its life and almost any 



to assume that the trouble is NOT bacillary infection, 
until all the more probable causes have been eliminated 
by thorough diagnosis. 

The careful observer finds that the character of 
diarrheal discharges accompanying different forms of ail- 
ments or diseases vary more or less. Generally speaking, 
a frothy condition of the contents of the bowels indi- 
cates intestinal catarrh resulting from chilling in or out 
of the brooder, exposure to floor drafts, rain, chilling 
winds, etc., though they sometimes indicate inflammation 
of the bowels, such as may accompany any form of acute 
indigestion. The presence of reddish mucus in the drop- 
pings also indicates inflammation. Watery droppings, 
when associated with extreme thirst, indicate aspergillosis 
— a disease acquired by inhaling mold spores from moldy 
grain, clover, etc., or picking them up with food. White, 
pasty droppings may indicate bacillary white diarrhea, 
but are much more apt to be the result of catarrhal or 
digestive disorders. 

It hardly needs to be said that for the crre of 
d'arrhea and the prevention of its spread throughout tb~ 
flock, the cause must be discovered and removed. Otter 
where this is done and a few simple measures taken to 



106 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



relieve the suffering resulting from diarrhea, the chicks may 
be restored to good health without any other treatment. 
In the earliest stages of the trouble it may be sufficient to 
use something that will act as a tonic and stimulant to the 
digestive organs, such as cayenne pepper, ground ginger, 
or mustard, used sparingly. An excellent soothing food 
for chicks suffering from bowel trouble in any form is 
boiled rice, which should be cooked thoroughly and boiled 
as dry as possible, taking up all surplus moisture at feed- 
ing time by stirring in sufficient brown wheat middlings, 
or wheat bran with all coarse particles sifted out. Let 
the chicks have all the boiled milk they will drink. 

In order to avoid spread of infection, it is always 
desirable to use a disinfectant in the drinking water. For 
this purpose potassium permanganate generally is recom- 
mended. It loses its virtue quickly in exposed solutions, 
but if the supply of water is renewed several times a day, 
as should always be done when there are sick chicks in 
the flock, it will prove effective, and it is quite cheap, 
besides being simple and easy to use. The best way to 
provide it is to make a stock solution by dissolving in a 
large bottle or jar of water, all the crystals that the 
water will take up, and each time the chicks are watered 




FIG. 175— CHICKS INFECTED WITH BACILLARY DIARRHEA 

These chicks are of the same lot as those shown in Fig-. 175, but 
have bacillary white diarrhea. They probably inherit the infection from 
the hens that laid the eggs from which they were hatched. 



pour enough of the solution into the water to give 
reddish color. 

Charcoal is an excellent corrective in intestinal dis- 
orders and should be kept before the chicks all the time, 
placing it in any convenient, waste-preventing hopper. 
They will eat it more readily if supplied in granulated 
form with the fine dust screened out. It is taken for 
granted that the chicks will always have a supply of grit 
crushed to suitable size. Clean, coarse sand will answer 
at first, but a good grade of commercial grit is better. 

In all digestive troubles with chicks a liberal supply 
of green food is important. This should be tender and 
succulent however, and if the chicks are not accustomed 
to having all they want of it, only a limited quantity 
should be fed at first, increasing the amount as the chicks 
get used to it and can be trusted not to overeat. 

For the treatment of chicks affected with diarrhea in 
any form there are good commercial remedies on the 
market that are thoroughly reliable and effective, and 
they are much more convenient for use than home rem- 
edies. One of these should be secured and kept on hand 
ready for use at the first appearance of trouble. If none 
is immediately available in case of emergency, try 
bichloride of mercury. Get this in tablets of 1-1000 of a 
grain and dissolve twelve in each quart of drinking water. 



Proper Dosage for Chicks 

In administering medicines of any sort, chicks 1 to 
5 weeks old should have one-sixth to one-eighth of the 
dose given to an adult fowl; chicks 5 to 10 weeks old, 
one-fourth to one-fifth the adult dose; chicks 10 to 15 
weeks old, one-third the adult dose; chicks 15 to 26 weeks 
old, one-half the adult dose. However, where remedies 
are added to the drinking water, practically the same 
proportions should be used for both adult fowls and 
chicks, since the latter will drink proportionately less and 
so will get no more than 'the proper dose. 

In giving Epsom salts, apply the following rule: For 
chicks 1 to 5 weeks old, give 1 level teaspoonful to 8 
chicks; 5 to 10 weeks old, 1 level teaspoonful to 5 chicks; 
10 to 15 weeks old, 1 level teaspoonful to 3 chicks; 15 
to 26 weeks old, 1 level teaspoonful to 2 chicks. Salts 
may be given most conveniently when dissolved in water 
and mixed with a little wet mash, and the best time to 
give the treatment is in the morning before the chicks 
have had access to any other food. 

Importance of Post-Morterrv Examinations 

There are few external symptoms that can be relied 
upon in distinguishing between different chick 
diseases, and careful examination of the in- 
ternal organs of dead chicks is the only re- 
liable means of doing this in many instances. 
The poultryman therefore, must overcome his 
dislike for this work and by repeated exami- 
nations thoroughly familiarize himself with 
the appearance of the organs of both normal 
and diseased chicks or he will never be able 
to identify diseases with certainty. It will 
prove a good investment for the beginner to 
sacrifice a few healthy chicks in order to learn 
exactly how their internal organs appear when 
in normal condition. 

A good way to make the examination is as 
follows: Procure a shingle or board of white 
pine or other soft wood, into which tacks or 
pushpins can be easily pushed. Place the chick 
on the board, breast uppermost, and stretch 
out the wings and legs, tacking them in this 
Slit the skin covering breast and abdomen and 
peel it back sufficiently to expose the breast and the mus- 
cular wall of the abdomen. With shears or a knife make 
an incision below each side of the breast bone and re- 
move the entire breast. This exposes the internal organs 
without disturbing them. 

Liver Disorders 

After removing the breast bone the liver will be in 
plain sight and should be carefully examined. The 
healthy liver has a uniform, dark chocolate color and is 
firm in texture. If it is abnormally dark in color, or 
pale with bright red edges or spots, or if the gall bladder 
is enlarged, sometimes discoloring the parts of the liver 
lying next to it, suspect congestion or inflammation. A 
pale liver with streaks and patches of red is a symptom 
in bacillary white diarrhea but is observed frequently 
when no trace of bacillary infection can be detected. 

Congested livers frequently are due to a lack of 
green feed. Serious epidemics of diarrhea have been 
checked by correcting the ration in this respect. When 
the gall bladder is distended and the adjacent parts are 
discolored, the ration probably is lacking in animal mat- 
ter. Congestion of the liver may be caused by feeding 
overstimulating foods or too much mash, or by the ex- 



it a position. 



AILMENTS AND DISEASES OF CHICKS 



107 



cessive use of cayenne pepper and ginger. Congestion of 
the liver may or may not be accompanied by diarrhea. It 
often causes heavy losses and there is no doubt that 
many epidemics of so-called "white diarrhea" arise from 
this simple, easily prevented cause. If suitable foods are 
used and proper methods of feeding are adopted as out- 
lined in Chapter XI, it should be comparatively easy to 
prevent losses from this source. 

Aspergillosis and Congestion of Lungs 

After removing the liver, carefully examine the lungs. 
These should be light pink in color. If diseased they may 
be covered or filled with white cheesy nodules the size 
of a pinhead or smaller, or the lungs may be discolored 
and dark. If nodules are present the trouble is aspergil- 
losis, sometimes called brooder pneumonia. Aspergillosis 
is caused by the growth of mold in the lung tissue — jus 
the same kind of mold that comes on bread when it is 
kept too long in a can or box; the mold that is found 
in closets, cellars and damp, dark places generally. This 
mold usually forms in small, round nodules, white or 
yellow in color, cheesy in texture, and easily recognized 
wherever they exist. In another form of 
aspergillosis, small yellowish nodules are 
found all over the walls of the air sacs and 
various abdominal membranes, instead of be- 
ing limited to the lung tissue. The kidneys 
are often a mass of these nodules. This dis- 
ease sometimes occurs without noticeable de- 
velopment of nodules, when it closely resem- 
bles inflammation or congestion of the lungs. 

The most common cause of infection is the 
use of moldy hay or straw for brooder litter. 
The general use of "shatterings" or chaff from 
the stable or haymow is responsible for a 
great deal of this trouble. Dusty shatterings 
often are quite full of mold spores and the 
chicks breathing this dust are rapidly infected. 
The disease may also be caused by moldy 
food. While it has never been completely 
proved, it is probable that infection may take 
place through the egg shells which, when 
damp, furnish conditions peculiarly favorable to the de 
velopment of mold. Since the shells are quite porous it 
is possible for infection to penetrate the shell in this way. 
To prevent such infection eggs kept for hatching should 
be stored where mold will not form, and as an additional 
precaution they should be dipped in alcohol before being 
placed in the incubator. Since mold forms readily on eggs 
where they come in contact with each other, those that 
are kept for hatching should not touch, especially where 
there is any dampness. 

While epidemics of aspergillosis are almost invariably 
reported as "white diarrhea," this disease seldom if ever 
produces characteristic "white" discharges. As a rule, 
they are quite watery, probably due to the fact that 
chicks affected with this disorder are feverish and drink 
excessive quantities of water. There is no known cure 
for aspergillosis. If its presence is promptly discovered 
much may be done to prevent serious losses by at once 
removing the source of infection. Use nothing but mold- 
free litter and feed, disinfect the brooder every time a 
new lot of chicks is placed in it, and be sure that it is 
absolutely free from mold. If these simple precautions 
are taken the disease will seldom be a source of seri- 
ous loss. 

When the lungs, instead of being full of nodules, are 
discolored and dark, and appear to be filled with frothy 



mucus when cut open, the trouble is congestion or inflam- 
mation. This disease sometimes is called brooder pneu- 
monia, and frequently occurs in epidemic form. It is 
caused by improper brooding, impure air, also by allow- 
ing the chicks to become wet, chilled, or overheated. 
Many heavy losses from this cause are reported by per- 
sons brooding chicks in fireless brooders, especially in 
cold or changeable spring weather. Inflammation of the 
lungs is practically incurable but readily prevented. Use 
a brooder that provides an abundance of heat with a 
forced circulation of pure, warm air, prevent chilling or 
overheating, and losses from this source will be few 
in number. 

Sour Crop and Gastritis 

The crop, gizzard, and intestines should next be ex- 
amined. Chicks often suffer from sour crop and gastritis 
or inflammation of the stomach. These ailments fre- 
quently occur together and both result from improper 
feeding or the use of unsuitable foods. The chief symp- 
tom is an accumulation of gas and liquid in the crop, 
causing distension and sometimes vomiting and gasping 
for breath, the latter symptom occasionally being mis- 




FIG. 176— HEALTHY NONINFECTED CHICKS 

These ten-day old White Leghorn chicks are free from infection 
with bacillary -white diarrhea, and present a strong contrast with in- 
fected chicks of the same age on opposite page. 



taken for gapes. These ailments may be almost wholly 
prevented by using due care in feeding, and by keeping 
the chicks liberally supplied with charcoal. When the 
symptoms are first noted give Epsom salts and change 
the ration. It is a good plan also to give bicarbonate of 
soda (common baking soda) in the drinking water, mak- 
ing the solution as strong as the chicks will drink it 
readily. 

Coccidiosis 

The intestines of healthy chicks are pinkish white. 
In some forms of bacillary infection they probably will 
be a dirty or blackish white. Their contents should be of 
a creamy consistency and light in color unless charcoal 
is fed. If hard, frothy or badly discolored, suspect in- 
digestion, due to the feed or the method of feeding. 

Near the lower end of the intestines are the ceca or 
blind guts. Carefully examine these. They should be 
about the size and color of the intestines, with walls of 
about the same thickness. The contents should be some- 
what firmer. If solid and lumpy it is an indication of in- 
flammation which probably originated in the intestines. 
If the ceca are enlarged, the walls thick, and the contents 
cheesy or resembling mucus, the trouble probably is 
coccidiosis, a bacterial disease. Chicks affected with this 
disorder usually die between the second and fifth week. 



108 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



The symptoms are dullness and weakness accompanied by 
a white, pasty discharge. The presence of the disease is 
readily detected by examining the ceca, which will show 
symptoms as above described. There is little use in at- 
tempting to treat chicks that have coccidiosis, and pre- 
ventive measures must be depended upon for protection. 
Careful disinfection of the incubator, dipping the eggs 
in alcohol before placing them in the machines, disinfect- 
ing the brooder, and keeping the chicks on clean ground, 
all are advised where serious infec- 
tion exists. This organism is widely 
disseminated however, being found in 
practically all member? of the bird 
family and in other animals as well, 
and it is doubtful whether it causes 
serious trouble where strong, vigor- 
ous breeding stock is used and wherv 
the chicks' general health has not- 
been weakened or injured by mis- 
management. 




A — Male. 
B — Female. 



Bacillary White Diarrhea 

Bacillary white diarrhea is one of 
the most difficult chick diseases to 
combat successfully, though fortu 
nately it is by no means as common 
as it generally is believed to be. Of 
the reported cases of white diarrhea, 
apparently only a comparatively small 
percentage is correctly identified. The 
general failure properly to diagnose 

FIG. 177 PAIR OF the varjous affections that are con- 

GAPE WORMS fused with bacillary white diarrhea is 
unfortunate, as it leaves the real 
cause undetected and thus permits 
the spread of the disease and increases the losses. In 
all cases where the chicks have diarrhea, the first ones 
to die should be carefully examined, applying the tests 
already described, and if it is impossible to locate the 
trouble elsewhere, then (and not until then) bacillary in- 
fection may be considered probable. 

In chicks that have died from this disease the intes- 
tines are pale, showing a dirty white color and usually 
are empty, but may contain a small amount of gray or 
brown matter. Unabsorbed yolk generally is present 
and has a stale odor but is not necessarily putrid. In 
bad cases of infection the first deaths may occur before 
the chicks are taken from the incubator. Affected chicks 
are chilly, listless, and with little or no appetite and are 
"short backed." 

The heaviest death rate is from the fifth to the twen- 
tieth day, but infection is believed to occur within the 
first few days after hatching if it does not exist when 
the chick is hatched. If infection does not occur before 
the chick is a week old it is likely to escape altogether.. 
Infection has been clearly traced to the hens that lay the 
eggs from which the affected chicks are hatched, and it 
has been found possible practically to eliminate the dis- 
ease from certain flocks by testing the hens and remov- 
ing all infected ones from the breeding pens. However, 
many chicks that are not infected when hatched become 
so through picking at the droppings from diseased chicks 
and for this reason it often is recommended that glass 
doors in incubators be covered at the time the chicks are 
coming out, to make the interior dark and discourage any 
tendency to pick at the droppings. 

In all cases where there is reason to believe that the 
chicks are suffering from bacillary white diarrhea, ar- 



rangements should be made with the state experiment 
station to have some of the affected individuals examined. 
It is not desirable to forward dead chicks without pre- 
vious arrangement, however, as the person who is to 
make the examination may wish to give some special 
directions regarding their shipment so that they may 
arrive in good condition. 

There is no cure for bacillary white diarrhea so far 
as is now known. The only thing that can be done is to 
try to hatch chicks free from infection and then start 
them under the most favorable conditions, so that they 
will be strong enough to throw off infection if it occurs. 
Feeding milk — all the chicks will drink, is especially de- 
sirable, and the incubator and brooder should be thorough- 
ly disinfected for each hatch or brood. Fine absorbent 
litter that will take up all moist discharges so that the 
chicks cannot pick at them so readily, is recommended. 

Catarrhal Disorders 

Chicks exposed to unfavorable conditions in or out 
of the brooders, such as chilling, overheating, impure air, 
etc., are more liable to develop catarrh of the bowels than 
the various forms of nasal catarrh. Under some condi- 
tions however, they may develop nasal discharges and 
"sore eyes" — forms of catarrhal inflammation. Keep the 
brooders clean and dry and at the proper temperature, 
and do not expose the chicks unduly to cold winds or 
rain. Whenever either symptom appears give potassium 
permanganate in the drinking water as previously 
directed. 

Gapes 

Gapes is due to the presence of gapeworms in the 
windpipe of the chick. The characteristic gasping for 
breath is caused in part by the presence of gapeworms 
and in part by mucus secreted as a result of irritation of 
the lining of the windpipe, to which the worms attach 
themselves. The 
adult worms are 
small, seldom 
over three- 
fourths of an 
inch long, and are 
found in pairs in 
the windpipe. 
This disease is 
c o m p a r a tively 
unknown on 
sandy soils, but 
is so common on 
clay or limestone 
land that it is 
scarcely possible 
to escape it un- 
less special pre- 
cautions are fiq m _ CHICK WITH GAPES 

taken, riartn- Treatment of chicks affected with 

worms are known gapes is difficult and only practially 
successful, at best. The most practi- 
to be instru- cal plan is to prevent infection. 

mental in the 

spread of infection, though they do not, of course, give 
gapes to chicks unless the worms are from infected soil. 
In the case of gapes as in most other diseases, pre- 
vention is better and easier than cure and when there is 
sufficient room to do so, a good plan is to raise all chicks 
on land that has not been occupied by poultry for at 
least a year, and thus is free from infection. If it is 
possible to provide two nursery plots on which the chicks 
may be raised on alternate years, there will be practic- 




AILMENTS AND DISEASES OF CHICKS 



109 



ally no trouble from this cause. The following extracts 
from Circular 30 of West Virginia Experiment Station : 
by Horace Atvvood and Dr. C. A. Lueder, give a sum- 
mary of the results of some recent investigations on this 
subject at that institution, and are of unusual interest: 
"During her lifetime no eggs are laid by the female, 
but these eggs develop in the ovary and accumulate in 
her body by the thousands. When the worm becomes 
fully mature and dies and is expelled from the windpipe 
the eggs which have accumulated in large numbers may 
be scattered about in various ways and thus perpetuate 
the disease. 

"At room temperature, gape eggs freshly removed 
from a mature female and kept moist, hatched in four* 
teen days, and about the same length of time was re- 
quired for the worms to mature after becoming attached 
to the upper part of the windpipe. Eggs buried in the 
ground between two watch glasses, in a cool, shady loca- 
tion, retained their vitality and hatched the following 
spring, but this period seems to be about the limit of 
their endurance, as they were found dead and disin- 
tegrated the second spring. 

"It is probable that under natural conditions, such as 
prevail in spring and early summer, the eggs will hatch 
in from two to four weeks, depending on the tempera- 
ture. The young gape worms when placed on a vertical 
surface covered with moisture always tend to travel up- 
ward. In this way they ascend grass blades, and the 
chickens, picking off the dew drops and tender blades, 
take the young worms into their mouths. From the mouth 
the worms make their way to the sinuses of the head, 
and their movement causes an irritation which brings 
about a discharge and makes the chicken sneeze. After 
being taken into the mouth of the chicken the worms are 
soon paired and attached to the upper portion of the 
windpipe. 

"In 1900 the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment 
Station purchased a farm for genera! experimental work, 
on which gapes were present. The practice was adopted 
of burning all chickens that died of disease and of keep- 
ing the young chickens shut up until after the dew had 
dried off in the morning. This 
practice, without further proce- 
dure of any sort, thoroughly erad- 
icated the disease from the prem- 
ises in two or three years. Since 
that time chickens have been 
raised on this farm by thousands 
and not a single case of gapes has 
been present there for the past 
twelve or fifteen years. 

"While studying recently 
hatched gape worms, the junior 
author observed that they were 
extremely susceptible to a very 
dilute solution of creolin or car- 
bolic acid. A solution of three 
drops of creolin in a pint of water 
killed the newly hatched worms in from 30 to 60 seconds, 
and it was found that cieolin added to the drinking water 
was an effective remedy, this medicated water flushing 
the surfaces to which the worms had just become at- 
tached and so killing them. Creolin should be added to 
the drinking water furnished the chickens, at the rate of 
three drops to each pint of water." 
Leg Weakness 
Leg weakness frequently occurs among chicks that 
are from one to four months of age. There are various 




FIG. 179— COMMON 
HEN LOUSE 




causes for the trouble, such as lack of vigor in the breed- 
ing stock, bottom heat in brooders, overheating and 
crowding in brooders, poor ventilation, special feeding for 
rapid growth, lack of bone-forming material in the feed, 
etc. Constant confinement on board or concrete floors 
frequently causes leg weakness. Common symptoms are 
unsteadiness of gait, lack of activity due to inability to 
stand up, lameness, lying with legs stretched out behind 
or at side, etc. 

The common practice of confining chicks indoors for 
long periods before they are allowed to run out, with 
little litter on the brooder or house floor and indiffer- 
ence to providing exer- 
cise, is the cause of three- 
fourths of all cases of leg 
weakness. Medical treat- 
ment is useless. Correct 
the conditions that cause 
the trouble and the chicks 
will soon recover. The 
weakest, however, should 
be removed and be given 
a separate brooder where 
they will not be trampled 
and abused by the healthy 
members of the flock. 

Limberneck and Vertigo FIG 180 _ RED 0R -spider" 

Young chicks frequent- MITE 

ly suffer from limberneck, 

caused by eating decayed animal matter, or the mag- 
gots that grow in such material. Do not confuse the 
symptoms of limberneck with those of vertigo. In vertigo 
(congestion of the brain), the chick's neck is drawn back 
over the shoulder or twisted to one side and the neck 
may be turned so that the chiek looks directly upward. 
Affected birds will stagger, run backward, and make other 
peculiar motions, or may lie on one side. Congestion is 
caused by digestive disorders, sometimes by worms, and 
occasionally by injury. In well-developed cases of lim- 
berneck, the muscles of the neck are relaxed allowing 
the chick's head to droop until it often touches the 
ground, though in early stages the symptoms may resem- 
ble those associated with congestion. In either disease 
give the chicks a dose of Epsom salts and see to it that 
the cause is promptly removed. 

Overgrown Wings 

Young chicks, particularly Leghorns, frequently are 
found trailing their wings which appear to be out of all 
proportion to the size of the chick. This trouble oc- 
curs, occasionally, as a result of too high brooder tem- 
perature, but, as a rule, it indicates a lack of strength 
which may lesult from a number of causes. In many 
instances the wings really are not overgrown but are 
normal in length and only appear overlarge because of 
the relaxed position. When chicks are so affected it is a 
good plan to clip the wings, and relieve them of the 
extra weight. Then restore the chick's health by proper 
feeding and brooding, and there will be no further trouble. 

Lack of Feathers 
In many flocks there are found partially grown 
chicks that have failed to feather out properly, sometimes 
having no feathers at all except a few on the wings. This 
condition may be due to a lack of constitutional vigor or 
improper feeding, but more frequently to crowding in 
the brooder at night. Generally it is found that if these 
chicks are removed from the regular flock, warmly 



110 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 



brooded in small numbers and well fed, they will prompt- ■ 
ly feather out and make fair growth. Such chicks how- 
ever, should be sold as soon as they reach market size 
and should never be retained in the flock either as lay- 
ers or breeders. 

Stunted Growth 

This condition generally is the result of weak consti- 
tutions, insufficient heat in brooders, or crowding and 
poor ventilation in brooders or coops. The general ten- 
dency to discontinue supplying artificial heat before the 
chicks are properly feathered out is responsible for much 
lack of thrift. With hen-brooded chicks it usually is 
the result of overcrowding. Coops that appear to be 
amply large when the broods are first placed in them, 
become badly crowded as the chicks increase in size. 
Confining growing chicks at night to hot, stuffy quarters 
in which they scarcely have standing room — a condition 
altogether too common in late summer and early fall, can 
have no other effect than to stunt their growth and im- 
pair their health. 

Toe Picking and Cannibalism 

Young chicks, especially Leghorns, are quite liable 
to form the habit of picking at each other when kept in 
close confinement, the toes being the usual point of at- 
tack. This sometimes goes so far as to result in the loss 
of a number of the weaker chicks that are literally torn 
to pieces by the stronger members of the brood. As 
a rule this vicious practice is the result of idleness, 
though a lack of suitable animal food sometimes appears 
to be partially responsible for it. 

There is little danger of chicks forming bad habits 
if they are kept busy all day long, and for this reason 
there are few instances of toe picking reported by those 
who give especial attention to providing exercise. Where 
there is a special tendency to this trouble it often is a 
help to supply a little fresh meat, hanging it a few 
inches above the floor so that the chicks will have to 
work to get it, thus not only satisfying their craving, 
but at the same time inducing more exercise. It is stated 
that dipping the injured toes in pine tar will afford pro- 
tection, provided this is done at once, before the chicks 
have become too familiar with the taste of blood. 

Lice and Mites 

Lice and mites cause heavy losses among chicks, es- 
pecially when hen-hatched and brooded. Frequently their 
presence is not suspected and the chicks are believed to 
be dying from various diseases, when as a matter of 
fact, they are infested with lice and their coops and brood- 
ers are overrun with mites. Chicks that are hatched in 
incubators and raised in brooders will rarely have lice, 
unless they are kept in infested houses or where the 
parasites may be acquired from adult fowls. Chicks that 
are hatched under hens almost invariably are affected 
with head lice when taken from the nest, and should re- 
ceive prompt treatment. Lice are readily killed by 
grease in any form, and a simple method of eradicating 
them is to grease the chicks' heads with a little unsalted 
lard, vaseline, olive oil, or something of a similar na- 
ture. If the chicks are badly infested it will be neces- 
sary to apply a little grease under the wings and below 
the vent as well as on the head. There are several prepa- 
rations on the market which serve a similar purpose, and 
as they are more convenient and often much more ef- 
fective, the use of home remedies is only to be recom- 
mended in case of emergency. 

Red mites feed upon the chicks at night but remain 
hidden about the perches, brooders or elsewhere during 
the day. They rarely are found upon either chicks or 
fowls in the daytime, unless the sleeping quarters are 
completely overrun with them. Artificially raised chicks 
that are kept in clean brooders or colony houses, should 
never be infested with these pests, but if the mites are 
present on the premises, as they usually are to some 
extent in all houses occupied by adult fowls, there is 
always danger that they will be carried to the quarters 



occupied by the chicks. For this reason, coops, brooders, 
and colony houses should be sprayed with a good disin- 
fecting solution and this, if frequently and thoroughly 
done, will prevent all trouble of this sort. 

Enemies of Chicks 

Chicks have a number of natural enemies, and to 
raise them without serious loss from this cause often is 
a matter of great difficulty. The provision of proper 
equipment for brooding chicks however, would prevent a 
large proportion of such depredations. On thousands 
of farms, enough chicks are lost each year from the de- 
predations of minks, foxes, hawks, etc., to pay for all 
the permanent equipment that would be needed to pro- 
tect them. 

Cats. Cats can be trained to let chicks alone, and 
with proper attention there will be few losses from this 
source. In many cases they learn to take chicks by eat- 
ing dead ones that have been left lying around instead 
of being picked up promptly as should always be done. 
Then they get to taking mopy ones that are not yet dead, 
and from this it is only a step to catching them as they 
run at large. As a rule, cats that have once learned to 
take chicks cannot be broken of the habit and should 
be shot at sight. Where losses occur from this source, 
covered runs are especially serviceable. Chicks can be 
kept in them for the first three or four weeks of their 
lives and will do well if the shelters are moved to fresh 
ground frequently. Portable fence panels also are used 
in making small enclosures within which the chicks are 
confined until they are large enough to take care of 
themselves. 

Rats. Rats are extremely cunning, and where they 
are numerous it is almost impossible to protect chicks 
from them except by providing thoroughly ratproof 
coops and houses. Coops should have floors of inch 
boards, and all openings should be covered with one- 
inch wire netting. They should be raised off the ground 
and be moved frequently enough to prevent rats harbor- 
ing under them. Chicks should not be brooded near build- 
ings or rubbish piles where rats may hide, no tall grass 
or weeds should be permitted to grow near the coops or 
brooders, and if colony houses are used they should al- 
ways be blocked up off the ground so that rats -will not 
burrow under them. Permanent poultry houses with 
board floors should always be raised at least a foot off 
the ground for the same reason. When all grain and 
poultry feeds are kept in ratproof houses or bins, it is 
not a difficult matter to keep rats from becoming estab- 
lished on the premises. When they appear, a relentless 
war should be waged against them. 

Minks, Skunks, Foxes, and Wolves. In some sec- 
tions these animals cause heavy losses. Minks are es- 
pecially dangerous as one mink may kill several dozens 
of chickens in a night. If the coops and houses are prop- 
erly constructed, all openings covered with one-inch mesh 
netting and the doors regularly closed- at night, there 
will be few losses. Where the chickens are liable to be 
attacked during the day, there often is no practical way 
to protect them when small, except by providing large 
yards enclosed with wire netting and keeping them con- 
fined thereto. 

Hawks and Crows. These enemies are especially 
hard to combat, and when they get started on a flock 
will take many chicks. Crows are afraid of firearms, 
and shooting a few sometimes affords complete protec- 
tion, especially if the dead birds are hung on poles located 
near the brooders. The plan of keeping brood hens con- 
fined to small coops or covered runs, which proves so 
satisfactory under ordinary conditions, is frequently im- 
practicable where crows and hawks are numerous, as 
the chicks are thus deprived of the hen's protection. 
When these enemies are numerous it is advisable to con- 
fine the broods to a plot of suitable size, within which 
both hens and chicks may be given full liberty. This will 
enable the hens to warn the chicks of approaching dan- 
ger and give battle when they are attacked. 



I N DEX 



Air Cell, Development of the 42 

Albumen, Analysis of 24 

Albumen, Formation of 24 

Allantois, The 29 

Amnion, The 29 

Animal Heat, Failure to Readjust for 51 

Aspergillosis 107 

Blastoderm, The 29 

Bacillary White Diarrhea 108 

Breed, Choice of 9 

Breeding Board 18 

Flocks, Size of 16 

Fowls, Care of 13 

Fowls, Rations for 17 

Pen, Exercise for 18 

Pens, Mating the 16 

Stock, Care of Young 14 

Bred-to-Lay Stock 10 

Brooder, Cleanliness in 82 

Does Not Heat, What to Do When 76 

Electric 74 

Equipment, Skimping On 75 

How Many Chicks to the 80 

Litter for the 82 

Location for Outdoor 71 

Providing Ventilation in 80 

Related Fowls 10 

Temperature, Correct 79 

Use of Cold 81 

Brooder House, AShaped Portable 100 

Construction of 95 

Location of 94 

Permanent Colony 102 

Portable Colony 101 

Brooders, Fireless 65 

Homemade 74 

Indoor and Outdoor 70 

Brooding Capacity Required, 

How to Estimate 75 

Equipment, Care of 84 

System, Hot Water 74 

Catarrhal Disorders 108 

Chalazae, The 23 

Chicks All Out, Getting the 53 

Must Be Kept Busy 88 

Outdoors, Getting the 83 

Record Marking 77 

Selling Six-Week-Old 58 

When to Take Off 77 

Chorion, The 29 

Coccidiosis 107 

Colony Hover, Permanent House for 102 

Colony Hover, Portable House for 101 

Colony Hovers 72 

Colony Hovers, How to Use 73 

Congestion of Lungs 107 

Constitutional Vigor 9 

Cooling an Aid to Ventilation 44 

Custom Hatching 58 

Day-Old Chick Industry, History of 54 

Day-Old Chicks, 

Incubators Used in Hatching 55 

Prices Realized for 57 

Shippinp Boxes for 57 

What .- jjo With Surplus 58 

Who Should Buy 55 

Who Should Produce 56 

Diarrhea in Chicks 105 

Disease, First Symptoms of 104 

Door, Elevated Chick 100 

Dosage for Ci.icks, Proper 106 

Egg, Composition of Hen's 24 

Formation of the 22 

Structure of the 24 

Eggs After Shipment, Resting 33 

Appearance of Fertile and Infertile 28 

Cooling 31, 44 

Defective and How Caused 26 

Failure to Test 51 

for Hatching, Undesirable 49 



Eggs Held for Hatching 32 

How Long to Hold 33 

How Often Do Hens Turn 31 

Loss of Weight During Incubation 31 

Moisture in 31 

Position in Which to Keep 33 

Shape of 25 

Size of 26 

Size to Use 33 

Testing 41, 51 

Turning 40, 52 

Variation in Composition of 25 

Washing 33 

When Fertilized 28 

Embryo, Development of Click 29 

Embryo, Position of 29 

Enemies of Chicks 110 

Epsom Salts for Chicks 106 

Evaporation, Control of 43 

Evaporation, Percentage of 43 

Feathers, Lack of 109 

Feed Hoppers 91 

Feed, Unwholesome 93 

Feeding Chicks, 

Cornell Rations and Methods for... 92 

Importance of Careful 86 

Growing f *ock 93 

Iowa Statiou Met'.od of 92 

Method, A Successful 89 

Method, Deep Litter 91 

Method Recommended by U. S. D. A. . 93 

Methods, Simplified 91 

Milk for 105 

Trays 87 

What Not to Do in 93 

When to Begin 85 

Feeding Coop 88 

Feeds, Nursery 86 

Females for Breeding, Selection of 12 

Fertility and Hatchability 11 

Fertility, Reasons for Low 20 

Flock Matings 17 

Floor Space per Fowl 15 

Gapes 108 

Germinal Disc, Location of 28 

Growing Stock, The 84 

Growth, Stunted 110 

Hatch, Bringing Out the 45 

Cleaning Up the 46 

Starting the 37 

Hatching Records 20, 46, 47 

Hen, Bodily Temperature of 28, 39 

House, A Permanent Brooder 100 

for Breeding Pen, Small Portable 15 

for Colony Hover, Permanent 102 

for One Hover, Colony 97 

for Single Breeding Pen 15 

for Two Brooders 98 

Open Front Compartment Brooder 99 

Permanent Breeding 15 

Hover, Cloth-Covered Enclosure for.... 68, 77 

Installed in Colony House 70 

Teaching Chicks to Use the 78 

Hovers and Brooders, 

Who Should Use Lamp-Heated 71 

Hovers,* Colony 72 

Lamp-Heated 67 

Portable Lamp-Heated 68 

Hygrometer 50 

Inbreeding 10 

Inclines for Brooders and Houses 97 

Incubation, Loss of Weight During 31 

Incubator, Changes in Equipment of 50 

Buying Too Late 48 

Cleaning the 53 

Correct Temperature for 38 

Details of Operation 46 

Location of 35, 48 

Operating Without Instructions 49 

Overcrowding in the 53 



Incubator, Regulator 36 

Setting Up the 36, 48 

The Cost of a Good 35 

What Size to Get 35 

Incubator House, A Small Abovcground. . 62 

at Oregon Experiment Station 63 

at" Pennsylvania Experiment S'ation.... 63 

Concrete 64 

Details of Construction of 60 

Floors 64 

for Lamp-Heated Incubators 60 

for Mammoth Incubators 64 

Location for 59 

Incubators, Electric 34 

Hot Air 34 

Hot Water 34 

Mammoth 34 

Lamp Burners, Using Defective 52 

Lamp, Care of the 37 

Flame, Ideal 49 

Flame Too High '49 

Flame Too Low 50 

Neglecting the 51 

Trimming the 52 

Layers, Selecting the 12 

Leg Weakness 109 

Lice and Mites 110 

Limberneck and Vertigo 109 

Liver Disorders 106 

Males, Selecting the Breeding 11 

Marking Chicks, Methods of 77 

Milk Feeding for Chicks 105 

Moisture and Ventilation 42 

Nursery, Overcrowding in 45 

Ovary of Hen 22 

Oviduct of Hen 22 

Pedigree Hatching 45 

Perches, Teaching Chicks to Use 84 

Ppst-Mortem Examinations 106 

Rations for Breeding Fowls 17 

Home-mixed 89 

Sudden Changes in 93 

Records, Hatching 20, 46, 47 

in Use At Purdue University 46 

In Use at Ohio State University 47 

Regulator of Incubator 36 

Roosting Closet for Breeders 13 

Sanitation, Methods of 103 

Shade for Chicks 97 

Sour Crop and Gastritis 107 

Temperature, Correct Incubator 33 

Too High 51 

Correct Incubator 38 

Failure to Average the 51 

Temperature of Eggs 39 

with Contact Thermometer 39 

with Inovo Thermometer 39 

with Suspended Thermometer 39 

Temperature of Sitting Hens 30, 39 

Tester, How to Use the 41 

Tester, Magic Egg 52 

Testers, Different Styles of 42 

Thermometer Not in Correct Position.... 50 

Thermometers, Incubator 38 

Thermometers, Using Untested 50 

Toe Picking and Cannibalism 110 

Trap-Nesting 20 

Trays, Shifting the 52 

Turning Eggs 52 

Ventilation and Moisture 42 

Vertigo, Limberneck and 109 

Water Founts 86 

Water Vessels 93 

White Diarrhea, Bacillary 108 

Wings, Overgrown 109 

Yards and Fences 96 

Yolk, Analysis of 24 

Yolk Sac, The 29 



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